Designing instruction for the contemporary learning landscape.

Abstract

The current learning landscape is constantly changing in terms of what is learned, the context in which learning takes place, and who is learning. From an instructional design perspective, this phenomenon creates a great challenge for researchers and designers of instruction to develop instruction that fits the new learning landscape. In this chapter we will first define the major concepts of instructional design and provide a historical overview of the field of instructional design. Then we will describe those changes in the learning landscape with regard to what ought to be learned, the learning context and the learners and their consequences for instructional design. We contend that learning tasks that are based on complex real-life experiences are considered as the driving force for learning in the contemporary learning landscape. Next, the main principles for the design of instruction for learning from these complex cognitive tasks are described. It is argued that instructional design needs to be responsive to the relatively great challenges such tasks pose to the cognitive capacity of the learner. Therefore, using the theoretical framework of cognitive load, it is argued that the characteristics of the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture need to be taken into account in the design of effective and efficient instruction. Design principles for learning tasks, sequences of learning tasks in fixed programs, and ways to create adaptive or personalized programs are discussed. Instructional design: Definition and historyInstructional design is pre-eminently a multidisciplinary field. Many theories, from various disciplines (e.g., cognitive science, computer science, psychology, education, or neuroscience), yield valuable input for the further development of Designing Instruction 3 instructional design theory. In a recent article examining research publications and trends in instructional design, Ozcinar (2009) defined instructional design as:"The systematic development of instructional specifications, using learning and instructional theory derived from behavioral, cognitive and constructivist theories, in order to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of the analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs, including development of instructional materials and activities, and testing and evaluating all instruction and learner activities" (p.559).Instructional designers aim to construct or select instructional methods in the attempt to make learning effective, efficient, and appealing under specified circumstances. which the response of a learner must be shaped by reinforcing it appropriately. The application of Skinner's (1981) research into operant conditioning (i.e., the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior) and animal learning to human learning resulted in an elaboration of the theory of reinforcement, the so called Programmed Instruction Movement, which was characterized by the design of pie...

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“…During task selection, learners can be provided with a personalised sequence of tasks based on their specific proficiency and current learning status. This sequence of learning tasks can be chosen by a system, an instructor or a learner (Paas et al, 2011). Ideally, more personalised learning sequences, informed by input from learners, will allow them to perform learning tasks that are most suitable for their current level of expertise.…”

“…Researchers studying whole-task sequencing have proposed task selection strategies for personalised learning that can effectively provide learning content that matches the characteristics and differences of individual learners . Some researchers have categorised task selection strategies according to the agent who determines (controls) which learning tasks will be emphasised: system control, learner control and shared control (Corbalan et al, 2006;Corbalan et al, 2008;Paas et al, 2011). In a systemcontrolled condition, learning tasks are selected by an instructional agent such as the computer system or teacher (Tennyson & Buttery, 1980;Corbalan et al, 2006).…”

Modularity in teacher professional development – building blocks for bridging everyday teaching practices and reform ideals centered around whole tasks

“…It is commonly understood that teaching should be meaningful to students and incorporate students' existing conceptions. To address this, many reform initiatives in the past decades as well as more recent instructional theories have advocated using authentic whole learning tasks and addressing real-world problems as the driving force for learning (Kennedy 2005, Merrill 2007, Paas et al 2012. In authentic whole learning tasks (whole tasks), students are provided with opportunities to learn challenging content and skills and use their own cognitive efforts for learning.…”

“…In authentic whole learning tasks (whole tasks), students are provided with opportunities to learn challenging content and skills and use their own cognitive efforts for learning. Whole tasks cover integrated knowledge and skills in a certain domain or even between domains and are the opposite of more atomistic designs where complex contents and tasks are usually reduced to simpler elements which can easily be transferred to learners through a combination of explanation and practice (Merrill 2007, Paas et al 2012. When students productively use their cognitive and metacognitive skills within whole tasks they are challenged to acquire certain complex, higher-order cognitive skills.…”

“…Numerous reform initiatives in the past decades have had several shared ideals in common (Kennedy 2005, Paas et al 2012. First, teachers should provide students with opportunities to learn challenging content and skills using authentic whole tasks in which students are actively engaged.…”