Determinants of lead exposure in children on the outskirts of Salvador, Brazil

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is a toxic heavy metal that is widely distributed throughout the environment. Pb is an important neurotoxic metal and children are more susceptible to its effect due to their higher absorption rate and greater susceptibility of the developing nervous system. In this work, we evaluated the lead exposure levels in children living near a metallurgical plant and identified risk factors associated with its internal dose. All children, aged 1-10 years and 11 months, living near a metallurgical plant in the great Salvador area, Brazil were evaluated in this cross-sectional study and compared with children from a non exposed area. Occipital hair and blood were used to assess exposure. Air lead levels in the respirable fraction (PM 2.5 ) were also measured in both areas. Blood lead levels (BLL), hair lead levels (PbH) and air lead were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Spearman correlations analysis was used to evaluate correlations between BLL, PbH and descriptors. Significant risk factors were modeled using multivariate linear regression analysis. Air lead levels were approximately tenfolds lower than EPA reference concentration (0.15 μg/m 3 ). Median BLL and PbH were1.65 ± 1.45 μg/dL and 1.26 ± 3.70 μg/g, respectively, in exposed children. In the referents, medians were BLL 1.20 ± 1.20 μg/dL; PbH 2.09 ± 2.06 μg/g. No significant difference was observed in biomarkers levels between boys and girls. It was observed a positive weak correlation (Spearman rho = 0.197, p = 0.033) between BLL and PbH. Our data show that children's lead body burden measured as BLL or PbH are low when compared with the recommended reference values. Despite that, we were able to identify four risk factors associated with increased biological lead levels: age, living near industrial site, environmental tobacco smoking and, above all, domestic waste burning. In order to prevent such avoidable exposure, environmental education and proper waste management should be implemented, especially in developing countries.

A Systematic Review of Children's Environmental Health in Brazil

“…There were 13 studies of children living in the neighborhood of leadcontaminated areas in the northeast region, [80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87] the southeast region (State of Sao Paulo), [88][89][90][91] and the south region (State of Rio Grande do Sul). 92 One study was done in an area contaminated with aluminum 93 and another in an area contaminated with arsenic.…”

A Review of the Potential Issues of Pollution Caused by the Mineral Elements, Mercury, Lead and Arsenic, Its Possible Impacts on the Human Beings and the Suggested Solutions

“…In addition, China specializing in lead poisoning treatment. The BLLs were measured again by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with Zeeman back-ground correction (GFAAS; Thermo Elemental, Solaar MQZ) in the hospital [106]. The lead structure included: Pb(NO 3 ) 2 ; Pb(C 2 H 5 ) 4 ; PbCO 3 ; PbSiO 3 ; PbCrO 4 ; PbO 2 ; PbO (litharge); PbO (massicot) et al [107].…”

Contribution of diet to lead exposure among children aged 1 to 7 years in La Plata, Buenos Aires

“…8,9 Particularly for children with low exposure levels (blood lead level of 5-10 µg/dL), it is believed that lead comes from multiple sources. 10 Although some individuals are exposed to lead from contaminated environments or their occupation, for most part of the population, the main source of exposure is from diet. 11 In addition, mineral nutritional deficiencies, e.g.…”