“…This allows observation systems to be broadly adopted and to codify enacted instruction into a set of scores that, in principle, represents the relevant community's understanding of teaching quality (Klette & Blikstad-Balas, 2018). This makes observation systems a useful tool across a range of purposes, including examining the relationship between teaching and learning (e.g., Bacher-Hicks, Chin, Kane, & Staiger, 2019;Blazar, Braslow, Charalambous, & Hill, 2017;Klette, Roe, & Blikstad-Balas, 2021;Lynch, Chin, & Blazar, 2017;OECD, 2020;Reddy et al, 2019); comparing enacted instruction across settings (e.g., Martinez, Taut, & Schaaf, 2016;Maulana et al, 2019Maulana et al, , 2020OECD, 2020;Praetorius, Rogh, Bell, & Klieme, 2019); and providing feedback to teachers (e.g., Cohen, Schuldt, Brown, & Grossman, 2016;Kimball, 2002;Kraft & Hill, 2020;Muijs et al, 2018;Steinberg & Sartain, 2015;van der Lans, van de Grift, & van Veen, 2018).…”