Developing policy instruments for education in the EU: the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning

Standardization of (higher) education in Europe – policy coordination 2.0?

“…There are also specific activities that have facilitated the process of standardization as a possible outcome. The development of the EQF was marked by a process of extensive consultation as a means to assure legitimacy and to persuade member states (Elken, 2015a). Furthermore, the EQF advisory group and the national referencing processes have become increasingly standardized, similar to what Sahlin-Andersson (2000) observed in her study about OECD Management group activities.…”

“…As highlighted earlier, standards can also provide opportunities for policy capture (Borraz, 2007, p. 59). Not least, one should not undermine the role of the Commission in the process, and earlier studies have pointed out how particular actors can influence the process at particular points of time (Elken, 2015a). As a consequence, the standards that have been introduced can also function as templates for other policy ideas.…”

“…One can of course question the nature of 'voluntary' , that is, whether peer pressure and naming and shaming would mean that adoption would be voluntary as research has shown that there can be strong compliance pressure in voluntary processes (Ravinet, 2008). However, what is also clear is that the process is not driven by hierarchical authority that could sanction compliance and European coordination in this area is something that countries willingly engage in, implying a sense of 'stretching' of the subsidiarity principle and allowing for initiatives that would perhaps been unthinkable ten years ago (Elken, 2015a(Elken, , 2016b. There are also specific activities that have facilitated the process of standardization as a possible outcome.…”

National qualifications frameworks as a policy instrument for lifelong learning in Ghana, Malaysia and Serbia

“…One of the main characteristics of newly developed or 'new-style frameworks' (see Mikulec & Ermenc, 2016:4), formulated under the recommendations of international organisations, is the recognition of RPL as one of the main instruments of LLL (see Elken, 2015) and a means of connecting (a) formal, non-formal, and informal learning; (b) general, academic, and vocational education and training; (c) quality assurance, credit systems, and RPL; and (d) the needs of the labour market(s) and education and training system(s) (Bohlinger & Münchhausen, 2011).…”

The Community Education Program: A reflection on good practice in the USA

“…Both view lifelong learning more as learning «that should take place at all stages of life cycle (from the cradle to the grave) and […] life-wide; that is embedded in all life contexts from the school to the workplace, the home and community» (Laal, 2011:471). Elken (2015) states that the EU «has been on the forefront of developing lifelong learning (LLL) policies» (Elken, 2015:710). It becomes evident that, compared to the US, Europe is at the forefront of LLL research and its practical application through policies.…”