Development and Characterization of Whey Protein-Based Nano-Delivery Systems: A Review

Abstract

Various bioactive compounds (BCs) often possess poor stability and bioavailability, which makes it difficult for them to exert their potential health benefits. These limitations can be countered by the use of nano-delivery systems (NDSs), such as nanoparticles and nanoemulsions. NDSs can protect BCs against harsh environments during food processing and digestion, and thereby, could enhance the bioavailability of BCs. Although various NDSs have been successfully produced with both synthetic and natural materials, it is necessary to fulfill safety criteria in the delivery materials for food applications. Food-grade materials for the production of NDSs, such as milk proteins and carbohydrates, have received much attention due to their low toxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Among these, whey proteins—from whey, a byproduct of cheese manufacturing—have been considered as excellent delivery material because of their high nutritional value and various functional properties, such as binding capability to various compounds, gelation, emulsifying properties, and barrier effects. Since the functional and physicochemical properties of whey protein-based NDSs, including size and surface charge, can be key factors affecting the applications of NDSs in food, the objectives of this review are to discuss how manufacturing variables can modulate the functional and physicochemical properties of NDSs and bioavailability of encapsulated BCs to produce efficient NDSs for various BCs.

Evaluation of Peptide/Protein Self-Assembly and Aggregation by Spectroscopic Methods

“…On the other hand, the aggregation capability of proteins from natural sources is used to generate nanoparticles for drug-delivery as in the case of whey, zeins and gliadins [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. In this context, the use of techniques that allow the analysis of protein solutions to determine the presence of aggregates in a fast, reproducible and qualitative way is of key importance.…”

Nanodroplets of Docosahexaenoic Acid-Enriched Algae Oil Encapsulated within Microparticles of Hydrocolloids by Emulsion Electrospraying Assisted by Pressurized Gas

“…In any case, by looking at the samples with a 9:1 ratio, only evaluated during the first four days, it is again observed that the MD matrix seems to be less efficient at blocking secondary oxidation. As a consequence of the observations related to PV and ATR-FTIR experiments, the protein seems to block or reduce the extension of the secondary oxidation reactions by blocking more efficiently UV light [44,45] and serving as gas and organic vapor barrier material at ambient conditions, compared to the polysaccharide. After careful examination and characterization of the different changing features in the spectra of the purposely oxidized encapsulates, it was decided that the safer parameter to be used to assess the oxidative effect, particularly in regard to secondary oxidation, was the band broadening of the carbonyl band at ca.…”

“…In any case, by looking at the samples with a 9:1 ratio, only evaluated during the first four days, it is again observed that the MD matrix seems to be less efficient at blocking secondary oxidation. As a consequence of the observations related to PV and ATR-FTIR experiments, the protein seems to block or reduce the extension of the secondary oxidation reactions by blocking more efficiently UV light [44,45] and serving as gas and organic vapor barrier material at ambient conditions, compared to the polysaccharide. Figure 5b,c show, as an example, the spectra of the raw materials, whey protein concentrate and maltodextrin respectively, before and after 4 days of UV light exposure.…”

Milk Protein-Stabilized Emulsion Delivery System and Its Application to Foods

“…However, food proteins have other functional properties including the ability to produce a thick film around oil droplets [1,9]. Among various food proteins, milk proteins are the most commonly used natural emulsifiers in food industry due to their amphiphilic nature, GRAS status, high nutritional value, and good sensory properties [11,12]. In addition, binding abilities of milk proteins to lipophilic bioactive compounds and ions and antioxidant activity make them suitable for the encapsulate and protect bioactive compounds efficiently [11,12].…”

“…Although various synthetic (e.g., monoglyceride, sucrose esters, polyglycerol esters) polymers have been used as emulsifiers in food industry, there has been an increase in demand for 'clean' label food, which can make food manufacturers use natural emulsifier for food application [2,3]. Among natural emulsifiers, milk proteins, such as casein and whey proteins, have several benefits for the formation of emulsion-based delivery system due to their amphiphilic characteristics, GRAS status, excellent nutritional value, and various functionalities [10][11][12].…”