Development and validation of a self-rating scale for positive- and negative-reinforcement smoking: The Michigan Nicotine Reinforcement Questionnaire

Abstract

Positive- and negative-reinforcement consequences of smoking were assessed using a self-report inventory. Data from 429 current smokers (348 women, 81 men) were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis, with concurrent validation of resulting scales in 288 current smokers (235 women, 53 men), controlling for sex and age. The solution with three factors--positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and smoking patterns--provided the clearest and most interpretable factor solution. The Michigan Nicotine Reinforcement Questionnaire (M-NRQ), which yields positive- and negative-reinforcement scales, was developed based on these results. Positive-reinforcement smoking was associated with higher scores on novelty seeking, reward dependence, alcohol dependence, and pleasurable sensations upon early smoking experimentation, and with lower scores on displeasurable sensations and nausea upon early smoking experimentation. Negative-reinforcement smoking was associated with higher scores for nicotine dependence, depression, anxiety, and harm avoidance. The M-NRQ has potential as a diagnostic tool for individualizing behavioral intervention and pharmacotherapy and also may be useful in identifying new phenotypes for genetic research on smoking.

Associations between Cloninger's temperament dimensions and acute tobacco withdrawal

“…These findings are in concordance with our hypotheses and results from a previous study showing that smokers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (which is generally associated with impulsivity and other aspects of NS; Downey et al, 1996) are more likely to report irritability, anxiety, difficulty concentrating, and restlessness during tobacco withdrawal (Pomerleau, Downey et al, 2003). Because NS has been previously linked with positive reinforcement smoking (Pomerleau, Fagerström et al, 2003), we hypothesized that NS would be associated with abstinence-induced reductions in positive affect and abstinenceinduced increases in desire to smoke for pleasure. However, abstinence effects in high-NS smokers were not significantly exaggerated in these domains.…”

“…The current results parallel data demonstrating that smokers with depression and anxiety, which are generally associated with high HA (Peirson & Heuchert, 2001;Pomerleau et al, 1992), experience greater abstinence-induced increases in depressed mood, irritability, anxiety, and restlessness (Pomerleau et al, 2000). Furthermore, these findings also correspond with previous reports that smokers with high HA scores are more likely to smoke for negative reinforcement purposes (Pomerleau, Fagerström et al, 2003). At the subscale level, HA1-Anticipatory Worry and HA4-Fatigability and Asthenia exhibited the pattern demonstrated by the HA scale (i.e., associations with abstinence-induced increases in PANAS-NA and QSUFactor 2), which suggests that these two subscales might have accounted for associations produced by the HA total scale.…”

“…Given that previous findings have linked NS to tobacco use (e.g., Etter et al, 2003), we hypothesized that NS would generally exhibit the strongest associations with abstinence effects. In light of research showing that NS is associated with positive reinforcement smoking (Pomerleau, Fagerström, Marks, Tate, & Pomerleau, 2003), we further hypothesized that NS would be associated with abstinence-induced reductions in positive affect and abstinence-induced increases in desire to smoke for pleasure. Given that previous findings have linked HA with negative reinforcement smoking (Pomerleau, Fagerström et al, 2003), we hypothesized that HA would be associated with abstinence-induced increases in negative affect and desire to smoke to relieve withdrawal distress.…”

“…In light of research showing that NS is associated with positive reinforcement smoking (Pomerleau, Fagerström, Marks, Tate, & Pomerleau, 2003), we further hypothesized that NS would be associated with abstinence-induced reductions in positive affect and abstinence-induced increases in desire to smoke for pleasure. Given that previous findings have linked HA with negative reinforcement smoking (Pomerleau, Fagerström et al, 2003), we hypothesized that HA would be associated with abstinence-induced increases in negative affect and desire to smoke to relieve withdrawal distress. Finally, given the inconsistency of research findings on the association between RD and smoking, we had no specific hypotheses about the associations between RD and abstinence effects.…”

Motivation for Substance Use: Why Do People Use Alcohol, Tobacco and Marijuana?

“…Simons, Correia, & Carey, 2000), some researchers pointed to the lack of agreement on how to best conceptualize substance use motives. High inter-correlations among certain factors are common, and in the context of overall addictive behavior, some researchers propose that there may be two higher-order factors for substance use motives, namely negative and positive reinforcement motive dimensions (Pomerleau, Fagerström, Marks, Tate, & Pomerleau, 2003;Battistaet al, 2008).…”