Development of a food frequency questionnaire module and databases for compounds in cooked and processed meats

Abstract

There is ample evidence from basic research and animal carcinogenicity studies that heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are mutagens and carcinogens. However, there was a paucity of human data due to a lack of appropriate investigative tools. We developed the first validated cooked meat module within a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in the United States of America and created databases to be used in conjunction with this FFQ to estimate intake of HCAs and benzo[a]pyrene, a marker of PAHs. It became clear that other aspects of meat may also contribute to carcinogenesis; in particular, we are pursuing two additional areas: processed meat and iron exposure in relation to cancer risk. To investigate these hypotheses, we have expanded the cooked meat module to include detailed information on processed meats and fish. In addition, we are developing two databases, one for total iron and heme iron in cooked meat and the other for nitrite, nitrate, and N-nitroso compounds in processed meats. In this report, we will outline the methods used to develop the meat questionnaires, the databases, a software package for generating the intake values, and the methods used to generate nutritional data from nationally representative samples.

Meat and Meat-Mutagen Intake and Pancreatic Cancer Risk in the NIH-AARP Cohort

“…The meatcooking module queried consumption of hamburgers, steak, bacon and chicken, usual cooking method (panfried; grilled or barbecued; oven-broiled; other such as sautéed, baked, or microwaved), and level of doneness on the outside (not browned, lightly browned, wellbrowned, black, or charred) and inside (for red meat: raw; rare to medium-rare or red-deep pink; medium to medium well or light pink; well-done or gray-brown with juice; very well-done or gray-brown dry; and for chicken: just until done or still juicy; well-done or somewhat dry; very well-done or very dry; ref. 33). A formal validation study for the meat-mutagen data has not been conducted within the NIH-AARP study cohort.…”

“…In addition, we used the CHARRED database 7 to estimate daily intake of meat-mutagens, including the HCAs: DiMeIQx, 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), and PhIP, B(a)P, and an overall meat-mutagenic activity index (33). All meats queried on the meat-cooking module (i.e., hamburgers, steak, bacon, and chicken) were used to create these variables.…”

“…Formation of HCAs and PAHs depends on meat-cooking methods, temperature, and degree of doneness (33). Well-done grilled/barbecued and pan-fried meat contain high concentrations of these compounds, whereas stewed and microwaved meats do not (33).…”

“…Formation of HCAs and PAHs depends on meat-cooking methods, temperature, and degree of doneness (33). Well-done grilled/barbecued and pan-fried meat contain high concentrations of these compounds, whereas stewed and microwaved meats do not (33). NOCs may be found in preserved, cured, and smoked meat, or endogenous formation may occur from the reaction of nitrosating agents, including nitrite in preserved meat, with amines or amides facilitated by gastrointestinal bacteria (34).…”

“…In addition, we examined a meat-derived mutagenic activity index (revertants per gram of daily meat intake), a biological measure quantified using the Ames test (35), that integrates all classes of meat-related mutagens, both those that are known (e.g., HCA) and unknown (33), as a risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Our meat exposures were based on a unique meat questionnaire and mutagen database (33). Detailed meat-cooking methods and related meat mutagens have not been evaluated prospectively as risk factors for this malignancy.…”