Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory.

Abstract

Descriptive epidemiological studies are reviewed, showing that the female preponderance in depression begins to emerge around age 13. A developmentally sensitive, elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress model of depression is proposed to explain the "big fact" of the emergence of the gender difference in depression. The elaborated causal chain posits that negative events contribute to initial elevations of general negative affect. Generic cognitive vulnerability factors then moderate the likelihood that the initial negative affect will progress to full-blown depression. Increases in depression can lead transactionally to more self-generated dependent negative life events and thus begin the causal chain again. Evidence is reviewed providing preliminary support for the model as an explanation for the development of the gender difference in depression during adolescence.

A speech and psychological profile of treatment-seeking adolescents who stutter

“…Girls, on the other hand, may experience a broader range of emotional and behavioral reactions which result in a greater number of problems overall. This fits with evidence that boys are typically more at risk of developing externalizing problems, and girls are more at risk of developing internalizing problems (Hankin & Abramson, 2001;Leadbeater, Kuperminc, Blatt, & Hertzog, 1999).…”

A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys.

“…Sex differences in some aspects of emotional distress, such as anxiety, are present in childhood. However, the strength of sex differences in emotional distress tends to increase at adolescence, particularly for depressive symptoms (Hankin & Abramson, 2001;Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994;Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). In contrast, boys exhibit more behavioral problems than girls, including aggression and antisocial conduct, but these differences also depend on the developmental period considered (for reviews, see Coie & Dodge, 1998;Foster, 2005;Hinshaw & Anderson, 1996;Moffit, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001;Zahn-Waxler, 1993).…”

“…Second, we consider relationship processes for which a reasonable amount of empirical research exists examining the presence of sex differences. Third, we include relationship processes for which there is a commonly held belief, whether or not clearly supported by empirical data, that girls and boys differ.Although a few integrative reviews (e.g., Buhrmester, 1996;Cross & Madson, 1997;Hankin & Abramson, 2001;Maccoby, 1990Maccoby, , 1998Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994) consider sex differences in selected domains of relationship processes, these reviews are limited in several ways. First, prior reviews focus on a narrower evaluation of constructs within particular domains rather than summarizing research across a variety of domains.…”

Prevention of depression in youth: A qualitative review and future suggestions

“…A related consideration, particularly in universal or indicated interventions where individuals are not selected because of the presence of any particular risk variables, involves population-wide gender differences in certain risk factors. For example, females tend to show greater cognitive style vulnerability than males (see Hankin & Abramson, 2001). If an intervention is geared towards cognitive restructuring and changing attributional style, then a two-way treatment X gender interaction may be significant because more of the female participants received an intervention relevant to their risk factor.…”