Development of the Resistance and Empowerment Against Racism (REAR) Scale.

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to develop and validate the Resistance and Empowerment Against Racism (REAR) scale. Method: Fifty items developed through processes adapted from Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) were administered to a sample of 723 women and 230 men of color (Asian Americans, Black Americans, Latinx, and Native Americans). We employed exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses using stratified subsamples; examined construct validity of the final REAR scale and subscales; and evaluated 2-week test-retest reliability with a subsample. Results: Analyses supported a four-factor model, including Awareness and Relational Resistance; Participation in Resistance Activities and Organizations; Interpersonal Confrontation; and Leadership for Resistance. The REAR demonstrated good test-retest and internal reliability and construct validity. Conclusions: Use of the REAR may enable researchers and clinicians to examine how people of color proactively respond to racism through empowered action to challenge racism, and how these responses may moderate the negative effects of racism on psychological well-being. Public Significance StatementThe wide prevalence and negative effects of racism on people of color has been well established by prior literature. Resistance is a kind of empowered coping that attempts to proactively challenge the existence and perpetuation of racism. Being able to measure the extent to which people engage in resistance actions will help illuminate how resistance could be a proactive strategy to foster positive mental health for people of color and contribute to a more equitable society.

Body positivity for Asian Americans: Development and evaluation of the pride in Asian American Appearance Scale.

“…However, items from within this factor diverged into two separate factors in our four-factor model, Preference for Asian American Appearance as well as Action to Promote Asians’ Attractiveness. The presence of these factors may best be explained by drawing from critical race theory, queer studies (Rand, 2012), and the recent research that suggests that engaging in tangible action that promotes social justice is distinct from critical consciousness about social justice topics, even if the two may be related (Suyemoto et al, 2022). While both of these subscales showed evidence of validity through their positive correlations with collective self-esteem and positive body image, as well as their negative correlations with internalized racist appearance bias, we suggest that researchers either use the total PAAAS score, the Pride in Asian Features subscale, or Asian Americans as Desirable subscale in their future work, given the low reliability for Preference for Asian American Appearance and Action to Promote Asians’ Attractiveness.…”

“…Past studies have found that racial collective self-esteem, or the extent to which Asian Americans feel positively about their own racial group and racial identity, is associated with reduced depression and internalized racism (Choi et al, 2017). Furthermore, collective self-esteem is positively associated with increased use of adaptive coping strategies as well as taking action to resist and empower oneself against racism (Suyemoto et al, 2022). Perhaps Asian Americans who feel more positively about their racial group and identity may also possess greater positive affect about the Asian characteristics of their physical appearance, while also explicitly rejecting White and Eurocentric beauty standards.…”

“…Second, to assess convergent validity, we hypothesized that the PAAAS would be positively correlated with a general measure of body positivity. We also hypothesized that the PAAAS would be positively correlated with collective self-esteem based on the predominant literature that suggests collective self-esteem is associated with positive health outcomes for Asian Americans (Choi et al, 2017; Suyemoto et al, 2022).…”

Queer Asian American men’s racialized dating preferences: The role of internalized racism and resistance and empowerment against racism.

“…Participants’ resistance against racist oppression (i.e., proactive coping that challenges demands placed upon individuals under a racialized system) and empowerment against racist oppression (i.e., developing a meaningful goal-oriented belief while drawing from one’s self-efficacy to increase power, knowledge, or competence) was measured using the 26-item Resistance and Empowerment Against Racism Scale (REAR; Suyemoto et al, 2022). The scale contains four subscales: awareness and relational resistance (e.g., “I choose not to laugh at jokes that stereotype or racially discriminate”), participation in resistance activities and organizations (e.g., “I participate in activities or organizations that aim to reduce or resist racial discrimination), interpersonal confrontation (e.g., “I point it out to people when they say something that stereotypes or racially discriminates”), and leadership for resistance (e.g., “I create or lead activities or organizations that aim to reduce or resist racial discrimination”).…”

“…In contrast to internalized racism, heightened resistance and empowerment may bolster queer Asian American men’s self-efficacy by providing them with the sense that they can take action to advocate for themselves in difficult circumstances, including a racially hostile queer community. In a sample of about 1,000 people of color that included Asian, Black, Latinx, and Native Americans, resistance and empowerment was positively correlated with a variety of adaptive outcomes, such as active coping, planning, emotional support, and instrumental support (Suyemoto et al, 2022). Therefore, it is possible that if participants engage in more resistance and empowerment, they may also feel more self-efficacy and feel less reliant on preferring to date White men to recuperate a sense of self-worth or self-esteem.…”