“…For the independent, or exogenous phantom factors (i.e., decoding, reading fluency, vocabulary, and listening comprehension), the observed variables had a loading on their corresponding latent phantom factor. The residual variances of the observed independent variables were fixed to zero, and the variances of the latent phantom factors were fixed to one (Rodríguez et al, 2015). For the dependent, or endogenous phantom, factors (i.e., both reading comprehension tests), the variances were freely estimated and the factor loadings of the observed dependent variables on their latent phantom factors were fixed to their standard deviations (van den Boer et al, 2014).…”