Dialect variation, dialect-shifting, and reading comprehension in second grade

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine second graders’ (n=680) changing spoken nonmainstream American English (NMAE) use in relation to their oral language and reading comprehension achievement. Fall NMAE production was negatively associated with fall achievement scores. NMAE production generally decreased from fall to spring. Students who qualified for the US Free and Reduced Lunch program (FARL) and who had stronger language skills were more likely to decrease their NMAE use (i.e., dialect shifting) than their peers who did not qualify for FARL or their peers with weaker language skills. Dialect shifting for a sub-sample of 102 students who used substantial amounts of NMAE at the beginning of the school year was predicted by school context, controlling for reading and language skills – in general, students who attended more affluent schools dialect shifted to a greater extent than did their peers who attended higher poverty schools. Greater dialect shifting in this group predicted gains in reading comprehension from fall to spring.

The effects of dialect awareness instruction on nonmainstream American English speakers

“…For example, in large cross-sectional studies using spoken narratives and picture description tasks, Craig et al (2009) observed decreasing spoken production of AAE forms among children from first through fifth grades (ages 6-11 years), with the greatest decreases noted in first grade (Craig et al, 2009;. In separate longitudinal studies using the same measure of spoken dialect production at all time points, researchers observed significant decreases in spoken NMAE production rates between kindergarten and first grade (Ortiz et al, 2012;, during the first grade , between first grade and second grade (Terry et al, 2012), and during second grade (Terry et al, 2016). Importantly, in each of these studies, most children were observed to change their dialect use spontaneously and without explicit instruction.…”

“…Finally, there is evidence that children who demonstrate shifting from more to less NMAE use during early schooling may have stronger language, reading, and writing skills. For example, in three longitudinal studies with primary grade children, researchers found that dialect shifting was predicted by performance on oral language measures, such as vocabulary, morphosyntax, and phonological awareness (Terry et al, 2012(Terry et al, , 2016Craig et al, 2014). Terry and colleagues also found that children who shifted from more to less NMAE use during first and second grade demonstrated greater gains in word reading and reading comprehension at the end of the school year (Terry et al, 2012(Terry et al, , 2016.…”

“…For example, in three longitudinal studies with primary grade children, researchers found that dialect shifting was predicted by performance on oral language measures, such as vocabulary, morphosyntax, and phonological awareness (Terry et al, 2012(Terry et al, , 2016Craig et al, 2014). Terry and colleagues also found that children who shifted from more to less NMAE use during first and second grade demonstrated greater gains in word reading and reading comprehension at the end of the school year (Terry et al, 2012(Terry et al, , 2016. Additionally, Craig and colleagues found that dialect shifting was correlated significantly with word reading and reading comprehension in kindergarten through second grades (Craig et al, 2014).…”

“…First, many children living in poverty speak NMAE dialects that differ from MAE and standard English orthography (Labov, 1972;Washington & Craig, 1994). Second, research findings over the last 15 years suggest a strong, predictive relationship between young children's spoken NMAE use and various language and literacy skills, including vocabulary, word reading, spelling, phonological awareness, reading comprehension, and composition (e.g., Charity et al, 2004;Connor & Craig, 2006;Craig et al, 2009;Terry, 2006;Terry, Connor, Johnson, Stuckey, & Tani, 2016;Terry & Scarborough, 2011). Across these studies, children who are more dense NMAE speakers (i.e., use more unique features of the dialect) tend to demonstrate weaker performance on measures of language and literacy achievement.…”

“…Across these studies, children who are more dense NMAE speakers (i.e., use more unique features of the dialect) tend to demonstrate weaker performance on measures of language and literacy achievement. Third, researchers have observed NMAE production rates decrease significantly during the early elementary years in both speech and print, just as children are learning to read and write in school (Craig et al, 2009;Terry et al, 2012Terry et al, , 2016. Although it is not clear whether the relationship between changes in production rates and achievement are sequential (e.g., shifting precedes achievement) or reciprocal (e.g., achievement The two girl like to play The two girls like to play Omission of past tense marker 2,3 I see them before I saw them before…”