Differential Activation of Programmed Cell Death in Patients with Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Abstract

SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-2) causes severe lower airway disease and death in a subset of patients. Knowledge on the relative contribution of programmed cell death (PCD) to lung pathology is limited to few human autopsy studies with small sample size/scope, in vitro cell culture, and experimental model systems. In this study, we sought to identify, localize, and quantify activation of apoptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis in FFPE lung tissues from patients that died from severe SARS-2 infection (n=28) relative to uninfected controls (n=13). Immunofluorescence (IF) staining, whole-slide imaging, and Image J software was used to localize and quantify expression of SARS-2 nucleoprotein and the following PCD protein markers: cleaved Caspase-3, pMLKL, cleaved Gasdermin D, and CD71, respectively. IF showed differential activation of each PCD pathway in SARS-2 infected lungs and dichotomous staining for SARS-2 nucleoprotein enabling distinction between high (n=9) vs low viral burden (n= 19). No differences were observed in apoptosis and ferroptosis in SARS-2 infected lungs relative to uninfected controls. However, both pyroptosis and necroptosis were significantly increased in SARS-2 infected lungs. Increased pyroptosis was observed in SARS-2 infected lungs, irrespective of viral burden, suggesting an inflammation-driven mechanism. In contrast, necroptosis exhibited a very strong positive correlation with viral burden (R2=0.9925), suggesting a direct SARS-2 mediated effect. These data indicate a possible novel mechanism for viral-mediated necroptosis and a potential role for both lytic programmed cell death pathways, necroptosis and pyroptosis, in mediating infection outcome.

The Anti-Oxidative, Anti-Inflammatory, Anti-Apoptotic, and Anti-Necroptotic Role of Zinc in COVID-19 and Sepsis

“…COVID-19 induces cytokine storm, releasing DAMPs such as the mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), leading to necroptosis programmed cell death [161], organ damage related to viral burden, and mortality [162]. In COVID-19, the necroptosis pathways of MLKL-, fas-associated death domain (FADD)-, and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC)-related genes are likely to be involved in lymphopenia and might potentially predict the COVID-19 outcome [163].…”