1991
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115884
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Direct and Indirect Effects in Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness

Abstract: In 1915, Greenwood and Yule noted that for valid vaccine efficacy studies, exposure to infection in the vaccinated and the unvaccinated must be equal (Proc R Soc Med 1915;8(part 2):113-94). The direct effect of a vaccine, however, needs to be defined by the protection it confers given a specific amount of exposure to infection, not just a comparable exposure. In this paper, two classes of parameters are distinguished along lines differing from the conventional distinction between efficacy and effectiveness. Ef… Show more

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Cited by 260 publications
(168 citation statements)
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“…This might explain the heterogeneous Chow Test results for different age groups in the vaccination period. Parameters for evaluating vaccine intervention programs against infections diseases must take into account the direct effects of the intervention as well as the indirect, also known as the protective effects, that are mediated by the intervention-induced changes in transmission of disease (Halloran et al 1991).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…This might explain the heterogeneous Chow Test results for different age groups in the vaccination period. Parameters for evaluating vaccine intervention programs against infections diseases must take into account the direct effects of the intervention as well as the indirect, also known as the protective effects, that are mediated by the intervention-induced changes in transmission of disease (Halloran et al 1991).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…O risco então não seria um conceito passível de ser transposto à singularidade sem mediações 1 . Esta construção metodológica é coerente com a visão que distingue risco -enquanto medida de probabilidade individual, de uma derivação deste, a razão de densidade de incidência -enquanto medida capaz de estimar a força de morbidade em populações 11,16 . A duplicidade de objetivos de medidas construídas a partir da mesma lógica causai, poderia ser vista como ambigüidade, pois a epidemiologia define-se como o estudo de doenças em populações.…”
Section: Discussionunclassified
“…Time-trend studies may be used to study the overall effect of vaccination, that is the reduction in average risk for a person in a vaccinated population with a given level of coverage, compared to a person in an unvaccinated population (54,55). Moreover, it may be limited to age groups that are not eligible for vaccination, studying the indirect effect of the vaccine, which is the impact of increased vaccine coverage in one age group on outcomes in another (3).…”
Section: Time-trend Ve Studiesmentioning
confidence: 99%