Displacement as a function of conflict.

Murray, Edward J.; Berkun, Mitchell M.

doi:10.1037/h0048361

Cited by 48 publications

(26 citation statements)

References 8 publications

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“…These findings show how positive and negative evaluations of a goal can arise in an uncoupled manner through independent contingencies of reinforcement and punishment. In other studies (Miller, 1944;Murray & Berkun, 1955), the animals produced both reinforcement and punishment in the goal region, and they exhibited vacillatory behavior consistent with the approach and avoidance gradients that Brown measured separately. By inference, the strength of both tendencies increased as the animals got closer to the goal, an indication of coactive evaluative arousal (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1994).…”

Section: Bipolar Versus Bivariate Scales Of Right and Wrongsupporting

confidence: 65%

“…Another manifestation of the negativity bias is a tendency to avoid the setting in which conflict occurs. Murray and Berkun (1955) found that rats subjected to approach-avoidance conflict displaced their vacillatory behavior from the original runway in which they were shocked to adjacent, less threatening ones. In experiments on moral judgment, displacement would take the form of a bias toward making judgments of wrong against the action framed by the question, which in effect would increase the participant's psychological distance from the source of the conflict.…”

Section: Negativity Bias In Evaluative Activationsmentioning

confidence: 98%

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Moral Ambivalence: Modeling and Measuring Bivariate Evaluative Processes in Moral Judgment

Navarick

2013

Review of General Psychology

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Moral judgments often appear to arise from quick affectively toned intuitions rather than from conscious application of moral principles. Sometimes people feel that an action they observe or contemplate could be judged as either right or wrong. Models of moral intuition need to specify mechanisms that could account for such moral ambivalence. The basic implication of moral ambivalence is that right and wrong are regions of a bivariate scale rather than a bipolar scale. The former allows for equally strong positive and negative evaluations of a stimulus, but the latter requires one evaluation to get weaker as the other one gets stronger (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1994). Covariation of evaluative activations is supported by classic animal research on approach-avoidance conflict showing that when rats are both rewarded and punished in the goal region of a runway, their approach and avoidance tendencies both increase as they get closer to the goal. The relevance of this research to moral judgment is underscored by recent studies indicating that judgments of right and wrong are fundamentally expressions of approach and avoidance motivation. Experimental and historical analyses illustrate 2 potential effects of ambivalence on moral judgment, vacillation and suppression, and a proposed model shows how the bivariate scale can be applied to existing formulations, including Haidt's moral foundations theory. Studies of moral judgment that use rating scales, questionnaires, or interviews should give participants the option to express ambivalence (e.g., "can't decide," "don't know") instead of requiring definitive judgments, which is the current practice.

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Section: Bipolar Versus Bivariate Scales Of Right and Wrongsupporting

confidence: 65%

Section: Negativity Bias In Evaluative Activationsmentioning

confidence: 98%

Moral Ambivalence: Modeling and Measuring Bivariate Evaluative Processes in Moral Judgment

Navarick

2013

Review of General Psychology

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“…gravitation), forces exerted by desired and avoided goals are inversely related to distance. Supporting goal gradients, enhanced motivation closer to the goal has been observed in several studies, with both animals and humans (e.g., Brown, 1948;Gjesme, 1974;Losco & Epstein, 1977;Miller & Kraeling, 1952;Miller & Murray, 1952;Murray & Berkun, 1955;Rigby, 1954;Smith, 1965).…”

mentioning

confidence: 91%

Expectancy, Value and Psychological Distance: A New Look at Goal Gradients

Liberman¹,

Förster²

2008

Social Cognition

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Goal gradients refer to the increase in motivation as a function of goal proximity. We propose that motivation does not always increase closer to the goal, and that in order to predict the shape and steepness of goal gradients one needs to look at how distance affects the two components of motivation-expectancy and value. Furthermore, we distinguish between four aspects of expectancy (probability, difficulty, sufficiency, necessity) and two types of value (value related to high level construal, value related to low level construal), each of which has a unique distance-related dynamics. It is proposed that motivational gradients are determined by the effect that distance has on each of these components. our study demonstrated gradients of motivation, sufficiency and necessity, but not difficulty. We discuss whether avoidance gradients would be necessarily steeper than approach gradients, as is postulated by Miller's (1944) conflict models. We also suggest that in some situations (e.g., when gradients reflect necessity) gradients would be moderated by regulatory focus (e.g., would be steeper in a prevention focus than in a promotion focus, Higgins, 1998).It is accepted as a maxim in psychology that goals loom larger as one gets closer to them in time. Students study harder for an exam as it gets closer, rats pull harder the closer they get to the reinforcement (Brown, 1948), people that escape a fire first run faster than later on. The notion that motivation increases with goal proximity dates back to Miller (1944Miller ( , 1959 and is based on Hull's (1943) theory of motivation. In this theory, motivation is the product of habit and drive, where drive is equivalent to the extent of need (e.g., hunger, pain) and habit is the strength of association between action and outcome. Gradients (i.e., changes in motivation 516 liberMan and fÖrSter over distance to the goal) stem from changes over distance in habit, drive or both. Lewin (1935Lewin ( , 1951 also assumed that motivation increases closer to a goal. He conceptualized desired (and avoided) end states as forces that operate on individuals, and assumed that like physical forces (e.g. gravitation), forces exerted by desired and avoided goals are inversely related to distance. Supporting goal gradients, enhanced motivation closer to the goal has been observed in several studies, with both animals and humans (But is it always the case? Do people always feel increasingly enthusiastic as they approach a goal? Do we always feel more motivated as we get closer to writing a paper? Do students experience increased motivation when they sit down to do their homework? In the present paper we would like to look at goal gradients from the perspective of expectancy-value theories of motivation and suggest that motivation does not always increase closer to the goal. Rather, the effect of distance on motivation depends on its effects on expectancy and value, which are complex and multifaceted. We present an experiment, in which we measure motivation, expectancy and value at differe...

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“…Displacement. A relatively weak person or object is blamed for the client's difficulties (Murry & Berkun, 1955). For example, a person may constantly express hostile feelings toward a submissive colleague while rarely criticizing an oppressive supervisor.…”

Section: The Operation Of Defense Mechanismsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Identification and Modification of Defense Mechanisms in Counseling

Clark

1991

Jour of Counseling & Develop

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This article suggests considerations and strategies for identifying and modifying a client's defense mechanisms in counseling. A systematic approach to a client's mechanisms of defense contributes to therapeutic gain. Inappropriate counselor responses intensify an individual's defenses and undermine the counseling relationship. Definitions of individual defenses and indicators for identifying the mechanisms are provided. A literature review focuses on the counseling implications of the defenses. The process of defense mechanism modification is illustrated through a case example.

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Displacement as a function of conflict.

Cited by 48 publications

References 8 publications

Moral Ambivalence: Modeling and Measuring Bivariate Evaluative Processes in Moral Judgment

Moral Ambivalence: Modeling and Measuring Bivariate Evaluative Processes in Moral Judgment

Expectancy, Value and Psychological Distance: A New Look at Goal Gradients

The Identification and Modification of Defense Mechanisms in Counseling

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