Distribution of Chromium and Gallium in the Total Suspended Solid and Surface Sediments of Sungai Kelantan, Kelantan, Malaysia

Abstract

Concentration level of chromium (Cr) and gallium (Ga) were measured in the total suspended solid (TSS) and surface sediments to investigate its distribution and anthropogenic inputs along Sungai Kelantan. The in-situ water quality parameters, surface sediment and surface water were collected using calibrated portable YSI water quality meter, ponar grab and water sampler, respectively. The concentration range of chromium and gallium in TSS were from 19-111 µg/g and 153-3762 µg/g, respectively, along the river. While in surface sediment, the concentrations ranged from 16-172 µg/g for Cr and 25-82 µg/g for Ga. The high concentration of Ga in TSS and Cr in sediment would suggest that the anthropogenic inputs takes place in the river channel, which is due to human activities such as sand exploration along Sungai Kelantan. In mobilization towards the estuary, Ga was more easily transported in the TSS from upstream to downstream especially during the wet season. Cr was dominant in sediment due to its affinity towards inorganic minerals and easily being scavenged in the water column during burial onto the riverbed sediment. Spatial distribution was prominent as several factors affecting the distribution along the river channel addresses the lighter gallium and dissolution of chromium towards surface sediment while being mobilize further for overall distribution before sinking in the estuarine region. ABSTRAKAras kepekatan kromium (Cr) dan galium (Ga) telah diukur dalam jumlah pepejal terampai (TSS) dan sedimen permukaan untuk mengkaji taburan dan juga kemasukan sumber antropogenik di sepanjang Sungai Kelantan. Parameter in-situ kualiti air, sedimen permukaan dan air permukaan dikumpul dengan menggunakan YSI meter kualiti air mudah alih yang dikalibrasi, pensampel cekau ponar dan persampel air. Julat kepekatan Cr dan Ga di dalam TSS adalah dari 19-111 μg/g dan 153-3762 μg/g masing-masing, di sepanjang sungai. Manakala di sedimen permukaan pula, julat kepekatan adalah dari 16-172 μg/g untuk Cr dan 25-82 μg/g untuk Ga. Aras kepekatan yang tinggi dalam TSS adalah Ga, manakala Cr dalam sedimen menunjukkan bahawa kemasukan input antropogenik berlaku di dalam aliran sungai yang disebabkan oleh aktiviti manusia seperti penggalian pasir di sepanjang Sungai Kelantan. Bagi mobilisasi ke arah muara, Ga lebih mudah diangkut ke dalam TSS dari hulu ke hilir terutamanya semasa musim hujan. Cr adalah lebih dominan di dalam sedimen akibat keafinan ke arah unsur mineral tak organik dan mudah diskaveng di dalam turus air semasa pengebumian di atas sedimen sungai. Sebaran ruang adalah peranan yang menonjol sebagai salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi taburan di sepanjang aliran sungai dengan mengenal pasti bahawa Ga yang lebih ringan dan pelarutan Cr ke dalam sedimen permukaan ketika mobilisasi mempengaruhi taburan keseluruhan sebelum terbenam di kawasan muara.

Overview of issues, challenge, and potential ground water extraction for Kelantan people.

“…The source of the contamination comes from heavy rainfall in monsoon seasons that causes erosion and eventually will contaminate surface runoff and groundwater [15]. Agricultural activities cause the accumulation of chloride ions and nitrate from fertilizer [14], leaky septic tank, landfills, total coliforms, and faecal coliforms. [8].…”

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“…Furthermore, the formation of turbidity maxima zones (TMZ) with enhanced sediment tapping zones (Ishak et al 2001 ; Mathew and Winterwerp 2020 ) and complex chemical reactions such as dissolution/precipitation (Juen et al 2015 ; Naderi et al 2016 ; Vinh and Ouillon 2021 ), ion exchange (Patra et al 2012 ; Cochran 2014 ; Hao et al 2020 ), water density stratification leading oxidation–reduction process (e.g., Ishak et al 2001 ; Walker et al 2021 ; Tian 2020 ), flocculation (e.g., Karbassi et al 2016 ; Zhang et al 2020 ), and absorption/desorption (e.g., Hirst et al 2017 ; Mohamed and Yaacob 2019 ; Zhou et al 2020 ) are the major mechanisms behind metal transition between particulate and dissolved medium. In a similar manner, the tidal influence and seasonal rainfall also control the residence time of water in estuaries giving rise to nutrient cycles such as N-cycle and P-cycle (e.g., Zhu et al 2018 ; Geisler et al 2020 ; Wei et al 2022 ) along with higher dissolution/precipitation of minerals in the estuarine system depending upon the CO 2 balance with atmosphere (Prasanna et al 2010 ; Chidambaram et al 2011 ; Naderi et al 2016 ).…”

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“…(Meuli and Wehrle 2001). Rivers are the most often used source of water, thus any changes in their properties or pollution will have an impact on human existence and the food chain, either directly through water supply or indirectly through agricultural activity (Ahmad et al 2009).…”