Distribution of Enterotoxin Gene-positive <i>Clostridium perfringens</i> Spores among Human and Livestock Samples and its Potential as a Human Fecal Source Tracking Indicator

Abstract

In this study, to evaluate whether Clostridium perfringens could be a useful fecal indicator in aquatic environments and could be employed as a potential source-tracking indicator, the distribution of C. perfringens spores and their toxin types in sewage and livestock fecal samples were analyzed. A total of 804 C. perfringens spore isolates (366 from human-related sewage and effluents, 128 from cattle, 129 from pigs, 72 from chicken, and 109 from abattoir wastewaters) were analyzed using multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect six C. perfringens toxin genes. On the basis of the presence of toxin genes, most of the isolates from both human sewage and livestock samples were determined as C. perfringens type A and they expressed cpa alone or cpa and C. perfringens enterotoxin (cpe) with or without cpb2. Moreover, cpe-positive C. perfringens was detected with frequencies of 29% and 32% in human sewage and effluents, respectively. However, only one isolate (from cattle feces) was cpe-positive among all the livestock samples tested. Thus, the distribution of cpe-positive C. perfringens should be considered an important source tracking indicator for human fecal pollution. Furthermore, we conclude that sewage effluents are a significant source of cpe-positive C. perfringens pollution.

The Circulation of Type F Clostridium perfringens among Humans, Sewage, and Ruditapes philippinarum (Asari Clams)

“…Finally, the isolates from humans infected by asari clams may become a pollution source of water environment via sewage influents and effluents when the impact of asari clams on human infection is significant. The isolation rates of type F C. perfringens were 80%, 56%, and 9% from influents, effluents, and asari clams, respectively, which were higher than the previous report of 29% and 32% from influents and effluents, respectively [ 18 ]. The differences in isolation rates may be because of the difference in the amount of samples to be cultured in an enrichment broth and that in the geographical circumstances.…”

“…Clostridium perfringens producing CPE and/or CPE in feces from patients has been found in outbreaks [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. CPE-producing C. perfringens causes both foodborne outbreaks and non-foodborne diarrhea [ 6 , 7 , 8 ] and was isolated from healthy humans, animals with enteric diseases, retail foods, and environmental samples [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].…”

“…Clostridium perfringens is an effective human sewage indicator because of its direct link and environmental stability [ 22 , 23 ]. Additionally, type F C. perfringens was reported as an essential indicator of human fecal pollution in aquatic environments because most of the isolates were not observed in livestock-related samples including animal feces and wastewater of a pig farm and an abattoir but observed in human feces and sewage influents and effluents [ 18 ]. Various studies have shown that shellfishes were contaminated with viral pathogens and induced gastroenteritis [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ] due to the greater concentrations of pathogen accumulation in sewage than those of the water surrounding them [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ].…”

Characterization of Clostridium Perfringens Isolates Collected from Three Agricultural Biogas Plants over a One-Year Period

“…Indeed, half the type A isolates from the three BGPs carried the cpb2 gene encoding the β2 toxin, which is reported to be associated with diarrheal diseases [19,41]. This result is consistent with those of studies that were conducted on farm animals, in which between 39% and 78.8% frequency of the cpa gene together with cpb2 gene was observed [25,[42][43][44]. Moreover, some isolates recovered from manure and digestate were positive for cpb, etx, and netB genes.…”

Pakistan’da İshalli Keçilerde Clostridium perfringens Toksinlerinin (α, β, ε, ι) Moleküler Tiplendirilmesi ve Tip ‘A’ Çoklu İlaç Direnç Profili

“…Most of the studies showed type 'A' as dominant strain of the C. perfringens that was also found in this study. Hashimoto et al [22] studied 804 C. perfringens different strains isolated from different sewage water system of humans and animals (chicken, pig, cattle). It was revealed in the study that the C. perfringens isolated from human's sewage water had enterotoxin gene, while, animals sewage C. perfringens isolates did not have enterotoxin gene.…”