Diversity of Mycotoxins and Other Secondary Metabolites Recovered from Blood Oranges Infected by Colletotrichum, Alternaria, and Penicillium Species

Abstract

This study identified secondary metabolites produced by Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Penicillium digitatum in fruits of two blood orange cultivars before harvest. Analysis was performed by UHPLC–Q-TOF-MS. Three types of fruits were selected, asymptomatic, symptomatic showing necrotic lesions caused by hail, and mummified. Extracts from peel and juice were analyzed separately. Penicillium digitatum was the prevalent species recovered from mummified and hail-injured fruits. Among 47 secondary metabolites identified, 16, 18, and 13 were of A. alternata, C. gloeosporioides, and P. digitatum, respectively. Consistently with isolations, indicating the presence of these fungi also in asymptomatic fruits, the metabolic profiles of the peel of hail-injured and asymptomatic fruits did not differ substantially. Major differences were found in the profiles of juice from hail-injured and mummified fruits, such as a significant higher presence of 5,4-dihydroxy-3,7,8-trimethoxy-6C-methylflavone and Atrovenetin, particularly in the juice of mummified fruits of the Tarocco Lempso cultivar. Moreover, the mycotoxins patulin and Rubratoxin B were detected exclusively in mummified fruits. Patulin was detected in both the juice and peel, with a higher relative abundance in the juice, while Rubratoxin B was detected only in the juice. These findings provide basic information for evaluating and preventing the risk of contamination by mycotoxins in the citrus fresh fruit supply chain and juice industry.

Green solutions and new technologies for sustainable management of fungus and oomycete diseases in the citrus fruit supply chain

“…Finally, ATX-1, AOH and AME have also been shown to be mutagenic (Dong et al 1987;Scott 2001). As expected, the production of A. alternata mycotoxins has been detected both under natural infection conditions and in experimental inoculation trials involving different citrus fruits, including lemons (Barkai-Golan and Paster 2008; Logrieco et al 1990), sweet oranges and tangerines (Barkai-Golan and Paster 2008;Logrieco et al 1990;Magnani et al 2007;Rovetto et al 2023b; EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain 2011).…”

“…Blue Mold is more common in fruit held in cold storage during the summer and it can spread in packed cartons more readily than Green Mold, causing a so called 'nest' of decayed fruit (Ismail and Zhang 2004). In infected citrus fruits Penicillium species produce several secondary metabolites, including mycotoxins, such as patulin and rubratoxin B (Rovetto et al 2023b).…”

Recombinase Polymerase Amplification Assay for the Field Detection of Mal Secco Disease byPlenodomus tracheiphilus

“…( P. digitatum and P. italicum ), Phyllosticta citricarpa . Most of them had been characterized at species level in previous studies (El boumlasy et al ., 2021; Demontis et al ., 2008; Riolo et al ., 2021; Rovetto et al ., 2023). Specimens of fungal organisms obtained in this study (Table 2) were molecularly characterized by PCR amplification, analysis and sequencing of specific barcode regions.…”

Biological Control of Green Mold in Simulated Post-harvest Chain of Citrus Fruit: Efficacy ofCandida oleophilaStrain O and Molecular Insight into Elicitation of Host Immune System

“…The primary and globally prevalent postharvest challenge impacting citrus fruit is the green mold caused by Penicillium digitatum (Abo-Elnaga, 2013;Kanan and Al-Najar, 2008;Plaza et al, 2004;Rovetto et al, 2023Rovetto et al, , 2024, a destructive disease accounting approximately 90% of total post-harvest losses (Costa et al 2019;Ismail and Zhang, 2004). This disease causes considerable damages on major commercial citrus crops, specifically oranges (Elsherbiny et al, 2021), lemons (Ben-Yehoshua et al, 2008), tangerines (Suwannarach et al, 2015), and grapefruit (Shi et al, 2018).…”