“…Indeed, NRFs, on average, spend less time with their children, are less engaged in activities (telling stories, playing) with them, and provide fewer childrearing materials (clothes, medications, toys) to them than resident fathers (Goldberg, 2015;Koster et al, 2021). In addition, NRFs' involvement may take different forms and vary by child age and sex, though empirical evidence here is mixed (Berger et al, 2019;Manning et al, 2003).…”