Do nice guys—and gals—really finish last? The joint effects of sex and agreeableness on income.

Abstract

Sex and agreeableness were hypothesized to affect income, such that women and agreeable individuals were hypothesized to earn less than men and less agreeable individuals. Because agreeable men disconfirm (and disagreeable men confirm) conventional gender roles, agreeableness was expected to be more negatively related to income for men (i.e., the pay gap between agreeable men and agreeable women would be smaller than the gap between disagreeable men and disagreeable women). The hypotheses were supported across 4 studies. Study 1 confirmed the effects of sex and agreeableness on income and that the agreeableness-income relationship was significantly more negative for men than for women. Study 2 replicated these results, controlling for each of the other Big Five traits. Study 3 also replicated the interaction and explored explanations and paradoxes of the relationship. A 4th study, using an experimental design, yielded evidence for the argument that the joint effects of agreeableness and gender are due to backlash against agreeable men.

Personality, competencies, and life outcomes: results from the German PIAAC longitudinal study

“…In particular, these studies have shown that low agreeableness and high openness are associated with higher income. In addition, previous studies have indicated that the negative association between agreeableness and income, in particular, is curvilinear-that is, the agreeableness-income relationship is steeper at lower levels of agreeableness (Judge et al 2012). Gender also seems to play an important role in the personality-income relationship.…”

“…Recent studies based on large Anglo-American and British samples have provided initial evidence that income is related to an individual's personality (e.g., Judge et al 2012;Heineck 2014;Mueller and Plug 2006). In particular, these studies have shown that low agreeableness and high openness are associated with higher income.…”

“…Other studies have found that individuals with a more external locus of control and low levels of emotional stability report lower levels of life satisfaction (Rammstedt 2007) and that the marriages of more conscientious individuals last longer . Personality also affects job performance (Hogan and Holland 2003) and income (Judge et al 2012).…”

Evolved individual differences: Advancing a condition-dependent model of personality

“…In non-human species, exploratory or bold behavior may increases risk of predation (guppies: Dugatkin, 1992;Godin & Davis, 1995;theoretical model: Wolf, van Doorn, Leimar, & Weissing, 2007; for review, see Smith & Blumstein, 2008), and among humans, extraversion can similarly carry fitness-relevant costs -extraverts are disproportionately represented in hospitals with injury or illness (Nettle, 2005) and their pronounced sensation-seeking can lead to traumatic injury (Field & O'Keefe, 2004) and legal trouble (Ellis, 1987). Similarly, high levels of agreeableness can carry fitness costs; individuals who avoid conflict are less desirable as mates in a variety of species, including humans (e.g., fighting fish: Doutrelant & McGregor, 2000;Midas cichlid: Barlow, 1986;humans: Lukaszewski & Roney, 2011), and high agreeableness may lead individuals to forgo their own objectives and risk social exploitation (Judge, Livingston, & Hurst, 2011). Although high levels of neuroticism may cognitively and affectively motivate an individual to protect limited social opportunities, high neuroticism is associated with impaired somatic health (Cohen & Williamson, 1991;Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005;Herbert & Cohen, 1993;O'Leary, 1990) and can place burdensome strain on social relationships (e.g., Buss, 1991a;Neeleman, Sytema, & Wadsworth, 2002).…”

The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations

“…69 These findings hint at a 68 For a definition of each trait, see Mueller and Plug (2006). 69 See also Judge, Livingston, and Hurst (2012). One must, of course, be cautious in basing conclusions about the contribution of gender differences in individual regression coefficients (on either categorical or continuous double bind for women.…”