Does Gender Climate Influence Climate Change? The Multidimensionality of Gender Equality and Its Countervailing Effects on the Carbon Intensity of Well-Being

Abstract

The carbon intensity of well-being (CIWB) (a ratio measuring the amount of CO2 emitted per unit of life expectancy at birth) is an increasingly popular way to measure the ecological efficiency of nations. Although research demonstrates that economic development typically reduces this efficiency, little research has explored the extent to which social equality improves it. This study uses panel data for 70 nations between 1995 and 2013 to assess how various aspects of gender equality affect the ecological efficiency of nations. We estimate a series of Prais-Winsten regression models with panel-corrected standard errors (PCSE) to assess how increases in the percentage of women in parliament, expected years of education for women, and the percentage of women in the labor force independently affect CIWB. Our findings indicate that across all nations, increases in the percentage of women in parliament and expected years of schooling reduce CIWB; however, increases in the percentage of women in the labor force increase CIWB. Our results further show that the relationship between different dimensions of gender equality and CIWB differs between more developed and less developed nations. Finally, we find that increases in the number of women in parliament and women’s education attenuate the relationship between women’s labor force participation and CIWB. We discuss the variation in our results by reviewing relevant eco-gender literatures and feminist economics.

Gender Equality, Human Development, and PISA Results over Time

“…However, despite these challenges, longitudinal analyses that explore change over time in PISA outcomes and enabling factors have the potential to add to the knowledge base in comparative education. Similar longitudinal studies have been conducted in other fields (see, for example, Ergas et al 2021;Heise et al 2019;McKinney and Fulkerson 2015); however, there is little research of this type in education (see, for example, Rowley et al 2019). This is the gap in the literature that this article seeks to address.…”

“…On the other hand, gender equality is positively associated with dialogue, cooperation, and collaborative decision making in the workplace (European Institute for Gender Equality 2021), scientific and academic progress (Husu et al 2013), and sustainable economic development (World Bank 2011). It has also been shown to reduce environmental impacts, improve health and climate outcomes, and support happiness and wellbeing for men and women alike (Audette 2019;Ergas et al 2021;McKinney and Fulkerson 2015). Due to the nature of the available data and the design of previous studies, it is difficult to disentangle to what degree these features of society are a cause or a consequence of gender equality, and whether such bidirectional relationships are symmetrical.…”

“…Along with other system-level factors, gender equality has been shown to moderate the relationship between educational policies and practices and student results (Campbell 2021), and in this study, we make use of the multiple years of available data on PISA scores, gender equality and human development to explore this relationship over time (Figure 2). studies have been conducted in other fields (see, for example, Ergas et al 2021;Heise et al 2019;McKinney and Fulkerson 2015); however, there is little research of this type in education (see, for example, Rowley et al 2019). This is the gap in the literature that this article seeks to address.…”

“…Possible explanations for a relationship between gender equality and educational results are still only theoretical. Prior research showing that improvement in women's representation in parliament is associated with more socially-minded policymaking, which in turn results in better climate outcomes for all (Ergas et al 2021;McKinney and Fulkerson 2015), and that closing gender disparities in healthcare improves lifelong outcomes for families and children, men and women, boys and girls (Heise et al 2019), provide examples of plausible pathways.…”

Gender gap and ecological footprint: are there country variations? Evidence from quantile panel regression

“…They asserted for the 114 countries under study, using ordinary least square (OLS) regression, the positive association between each gender inequality component and environmental quality. Ergas et al (2021) used Prais-Winsten regression models using panel-corrected standard errors they have used the carbon intensity of well-being (CIWB) as an indicator for environmental impact. Their results revealed that the effect of women's participation in parliament and their rate of educational attainment had a significant impact on CIWB and a lower impact on women's labor force participation.…”