Does Gender Identity Influence Children's Psychological Well-Being?

Abstract

This study examined influences of gender identity on change in preadolescents' adjustment over time. In each of two successive years, three measures of gender identity (felt gender typicality, contentment with gender assignment, and felt pressure for gender conformity) and four measures of adjustment (self-esteem, internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and acceptance by peers) were collected. Low gender typicality, low gender contentedness, and high felt pressure all foreshadowed deterioration on one or more indexes of adjustment. The combination of low gender typicality with high felt pressure was especially conducive to internalizing problems, underscoring the importance of the cognitive organization of the gender identity variables. The advantages of a multidimensional perspective on gender identity are discussed.

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Cross-Gender Behavior and Relation to Behavior Problems: A Study of Dutch Twins at Ages 7 and 10 Years

“…In the twin study of Coolidge et al (2002), a significant correlation was found between GID and depression for non-referred children (r = .20), but the correlation between GID and separation anxiety was non-significant (r = .11). Yunger, Carver, and Perry (2004) also reported a negative association between gender typicality and Internalizing problems. These results suggest that gender atypical behavior is associated with increased levels of problem behaviors.…”

Self-Perceived Gender Typicality, Gender-Typed Attributes, and Gender Stereotype Endorsement in Elementary-School-Aged Children

“…Findings on gender differences in selfperceived gender typicality have been somewhat mixed. Some studies have found higher levels of selfperceived gender typicality among boys than girls (Bos & Sandfort, 2010;Carver et al, 2003;Egan & Perry, 2001;Yunger et al, 2004), whereas other studies have not found significant gender differences (Lamb et al, 2009;Smith & Leaper, 2006;Yu & Xie, 2010). Researchers have posited that the observed higher levels of gender typicality among boys may be due to greater pressure for gender conformity among boys (Egan & Perry, 2001) or the higher status of men and boys relative to women and girls (and of masculine to feminine activities and characteristics) in most cultures (Lurye, Zosuls, & Ruble, 2008).…”

“…Second, the impact of gender typicality on adjustment may differ based on cultural factors. For example, cultural differences have been observed in children's judgments of the acceptability of cross-gender-typed behavior (Lobel, Gruber, Govrin, & Mashraki-Pedhatzur, 2001), and gender typicality may be more influential when pressure to conform to gender norms is high (Carver et al, 2003;Egan & Perry, 2001;Yunger et al, 2004). In addition, research on students from different ethnic groups within the United States suggests that the impact of gender typicality on adjustment may differ based on race and ethnicity (Corby et al, 2007).…”

“…The most prominent line of research on self-perceived gender typicality is that of Perry and colleagues (e.g., Carver et al, 2003;Egan & Perry, 2001;Yunger et al, 2004). According to Perry and colleagues, individuals may base their self-perceived typicality on a wide variety of personal characteristics, including traits, interests, and appearance (see also Spence, 1984).…”

“…For example, higher selfperceived gender typicality has been linked to higher self-esteem (Egan & Perry, 2001;Yu & Xie, 2010) and lower levels of internalizing problems (Carver et al, 2003;Menon, 2011;Yunger et al, 2004). Work by Perry and colleagues indicated that low self-perceived gender typicality was particularly detrimental when low typicality occurred in conjunction with strong pressure to conform to gender norms (Carver et al, 2003;Egan & Perry, 2001;Yunger et al, 2004). Self-perceived gender typicality has also been linked to various aspects of peer interactions, such as preschool-aged children's peer choices (Martin, Fabes, Hanish, Leonard, & Dinella, 2011) and peer acceptance in childhood and adolescence (Drury, Bukowski, Saldarriaga, & Santo, 2009;Smith & Leaper, 2006).…”