“…Given that disruption of the excitation/inhibition balance in the PFC has been associated with many aforementioned psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia (Krause et al, 2013; Lisman, 2012; Winterer and Weinberger, 2004; Yizhar et al, 2011) and ADHD (Moll et al, 2003; Pouget et al, 2009; Won et al, 2011), the individual actions as well as cooperative effects of both transmitters on synaptic transmission, intracellular signaling, and neuronal integration within immature and mature PFC circuitry are thus critical for the execution of prefrontal functions. How NE and DA, individually or synergistically, activate their respective receptors and the effects this on prefrontal functioning at the cellular, physiological, and behavioral level has been well-studied and reviewed in the past (Arnsten, 2011; Arnsten and Pliszka, 2011; Arnsten et al, 2015a; Arnsten et al, 2012b; Berridge and Waterhouse, 2003; Berridge and Arnsten, 2013; Brennan and Arnsten, 2008; Clark and Noudoost, 2014; Puig et al, 2014; Ramos and Arnsten, 2007; Seamans and Yang, 2004; Spencer et al, 2015; Tritsch and Sabatini, 2012). Nevertheless, recent compelling evidence demonstrates that the functional interaction between NE and DA exerts powerful biological effects by activating converging synaptic pathways in PFC circuitry; however this interaction has yet to be well characterized.…”