“…However, several uncontrollable elements, such as weather, traffic, etc., could also cause irregular driving patterns and not necessarily signify dangerous driving. Vision-based approaches: Vision-based approaches [20], [21] leverage computer vision on RGB camera [22], thermal imaging [23], and Infrared (IR) camera [24] to detect abnormal driving activities by directly focusing on the driver. The captured images within the environment are processed to determine movements, including facial features such as eye movements, talking, and yawning, as well as movements of other body parts [25] such as head movements, hand movements, etc.…”