“…Researchers have utilized various methods to enhance the accuracy of image classification ( Ding et al., 2020 ; Ding et al., 2023 ). These methods include the use of hybrid convolutional networks ( Chen et al., 2020 ; Zhao et al., 2022a ; Zhao et al., 2022b ), innovative networks ( Sun et al., 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2023b ; Zhang et al., 2024b ), improving image resolution ( Paoletti et al., 2018 ; Liang et al., 2022 ), underwater image enhancement using different methods ( Li et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2021 ), multimodal deep learning models ( Yao et al., 2023 ) and combining convolutional neural networks with hyperspectral images ( Cao et al., 2020 ; Zheng et al., 2020 ; Xi et al., 2022 ; Yao et al., 2022 ). Deep learning methods address the limitations of traditional approaches by automatically learning feature representations from raw data, eliminating the need for manual feature design.…”