Durability of Alkali-Activated Materials Made with a High-Calcium, Basic Slag

Abstract

<span>Alkali activated (AA) materials have been investigated for decades as an alternative to Portland cement (PC) products. Most consist of a silicate waste activated with alkalis, which leads to lower green-house gas emissions and a substantial drop in the use of unrenewable material resources. This paper studies the durability of AA materials made with a ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) from Dublin, activated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium silicate (Na</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>SiO</span><sub><span>3</span></sub><span>), both combined and separately, and cured at 20 and 60°C. The long-term strength and durability were assessed with accelerated weathering tests using thermal-moisture cycling, salt crystallization and freeze-thaw cycling. The 28-day strengths are compared to the 270-day strengths. The mass loss and macro/microscopic changes were investigated. The slag complies with standard requirements being ultra-fine (SSA=1950 m</span><sup><span>2</span></sup><span>/kg), basic (1.56 basicity-CaO+ MgO/SiO</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>) and highly amorphous. It is adequate for alkali activation, having a CaO/SiO</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span> ratio of 1.41 and a Al</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>O</span><sub><span>3</span></sub><span>/SiO</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span> ratio of 0.34. Melilite is the main constituent of the slag, in an isomorphous solid solution with gehlenite as the end member. The results evidenced that mechanical strength is not compromised over time, but it tends to significantly increase between 28 and 270 days. Despite the exaggerated weathering conditions of the laboratory cycling, the strength loss and micro/macro damage after cycling is minimum, except for a few of the Na</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>SiO</span><sub><span>3</span></sub><span> activated slag specimens. The Na</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>SiO</span><sub><span>3</span></sub><span>+NaOH activated GGBS materials showed the greatest resilience to the effects of frost, thermal/moisture and salts, as they remained intact and showed the greatest strenghts after cycling, and an unaltered microstructure consisting of unreacted GGBS and scattered silica cements alternating with alumino-silicates. In contrast, both the NaOH and the Na</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>SiO</span><sub><span>3</span></sub><span> activated GGBS materials were slightly damaged displaying salt efflorescence and microcracks. Increasing the curing temperature does not increase the durability of the AA slag specimens as it doesn’t significantly enhance the late mechanical</span><span dir="RTL"> strength. However, it slightly improves the strengths of the</span><span dir="RTL"> Na</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>SiO</span><sub><span>3</span></sub><span>+NaOH and NaOH activated mixes but lowers the strengths of the Na</span><sub><span>2</span></sub><span>SiO</span><sub><span>3</span></sub> specimens.

Reactivity of raw, pyroprocessed and GGBS-blended alum sludge (AS) waste for sustainable cement production

“…An Irish GGBS of particle density = 1.80 mg/m 3 was blended with the sludge. As reported by previous authors [21,[23][24][25], the GGBS is totally amorphous (Fig. 2) and shows outstanding activity and significant qualities for the production of alkali-activated cement, being ultra-fine (SSA = 1950 m 2 /kg) and basic (CaO + MgO/SiO 2 = 1.56).…”

“…2) and shows outstanding activity and significant qualities for the production of alkali-activated cement, being ultra-fine (SSA = 1950 m 2 /kg) and basic (CaO + MgO/SiO 2 = 1.56). Furthermore, it complies with the standard EN 15167-1 requirement for PC substitution in mortars, concretes and grouts and has ratios of CaO/SiO 2 = 1.41 and Al 2 O 3 /SiO 2 = 0.34 which are deemed suitable for alkali-activation [21]. Alelweet and Pavia [22] successfully used this GGBS for the production of alkali-activated materials, obtaining products with feasible setting times and rheology and significant strength.…”

“…2. XRD trace of the GGBS with a marked halo indicating a high amorphousness and no crystalline phases [21].…”

“…AS Ireland [33] AS York UK [34] AS Zhengzhou China [35] AS Colombia [32] PC [32] CAC [20] GGBS [22][23][24][25] SiO…”

Early Age Assessment of a New Course of Irish Fly Ash as a Cement Replacement

“…The XRD patterns of four samples taken from Phase 1 in the ash field are shown in Figure 8. The amount of reactive silica and alumina in the ash is largely responsible for its reactivity, which has been noted by Alelweet et al [16], who also studied the ash in Moneypoint. Previous work on fly ash mineralogy has identified up to 316 individual minerals and 188 mineral groups [16,17], with the most abundant phase being glass, with crystalline compounds such as quartz, mullite, magnetite, melilite, gehlenite, kalsilite, calcium sulphate and alkali sulphate accounting for 5-50% [18].…”