Dynamic measurement of position and orientation of robots

A nonlinear programming method for 3D localization of mobile robots

“…The laser sensors used in [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] can be divided into two major categories. One is the most prevalent range-measuring TOF laser with natural landmarks such as a wall or any structure that is already present [11,12,[15][16][17][18][19]21].…”

“…One is the most prevalent range-measuring TOF laser with natural landmarks such as a wall or any structure that is already present [11,12,[15][16][17][18][19]21]. The other is the laser range finder with artificial reflector landmarks [13,14,20] such as reflective stripes, active beacon, and transmitters. In the first category, the robot measures TOF data from itself to its surroundings by using a TOF laser mounted on it.…”

“…In [20], several artificial reflectors are placed sparsely in the working space of the robot as landmarks such that the robot can correct its estimated 2D position and heading angle by maximum likelihood estimation method when detecting the landmark using a laser range finder. In [14], a laser range finder, reflectors and a CCD camera are used to determine the positions and roll, pitch, and yaw angles of the end-effector of a robotic manipulator. However, if the exposure time of the CCD camera is too long, too much spatial variation will make the image blurred.…”

“…The only requirement is that the four artificial reflectors are not installed in the same plane. Since only a laser range finder is used, it is expected that the proposed method is more cost-effective that the method in [14]. Moreover, since no CCD cameras are used, the problem of long exposure time will be avoided.…”