Dynamics of Cetacean Mixed-Species Groups: A Review and Conceptual Framework for Assessing Their Functional Significance

Abstract

Numerous species of cetaceans have been recorded in mixed-species groups (MSGs). By forming groups with individuals of different species, cetaceans may reduce predation risk, improve foraging, and gain social benefits. Most accounts of cetacean MSGs, however, are descriptive and little is known about their functions. Furthermore, research has been hindered by inconsistent use of terminology and the lack of a conceptual framework to guide investigations. We reviewed the cetacean literature to compare how MSGs have been termed and defined, to assess their characteristics, to evaluate what is known about their potential functions, and to provide directions for future study. In total, we reviewed 203 studies reporting observations of cetacean MSGs. These MSGs involved 54 different species, predominantly delphinids, that formed 216 different species pairs with varied morphologies and levels of relatedness. Cetacean MSGs occurred across the globe, from tropical to cold temperate seas, from shallow coastal waters to the open ocean, and varied in characteristics such as group size and frequency of occurrence. Only 27 of the reviewed studies proposed and discussed the potential functions of cetacean MSGs, suggesting reduced predation risk (5 species pairs), improved foraging (17 species pairs), and social benefits (12 species pairs) as the main drivers. In most cases, however, the factors that drive the formation of cetacean MSGs remain unknown. Amongst the reviewed studies, MSGs were referred to by various terms, often with no explicit definitions. To reduce this inconsistency, we recommend that future studies use only the term mixed-species group which we define as individuals of two or more species found in close spatial proximity due to mutual or unreciprocated attraction derived from evolutionary grouping benefits. There were also few structured investigations to confirm MSG occurrence and to analyse their potential causes and consequences. To facilitate the study of cetacean MSGs, we developed a conceptual framework that establishes diverse approaches to, firstly, distinguish MSGs from chance encounters and aggregations and to, secondly, investigate their potential functions. This is necessary if we are to advance this field of study and improve our understanding of the role that MSGs play in species and community ecology.

Dolphin Distribution and Habitat Suitability in North Western Australia: Applications and Implications of a Broad-Scale, Non-targeted Dataset

“…This is plausible as both species are "opportunistic-generalist feeders, " consuming a wide range of benthic and pelagic fish and cephalopod species (Amir et al, 2005;Parra and Jedensjö, 2014;McCluskey et al, 2016;Smith and Sprogis, 2016;Sprogis et al, 2017b). As there are many unresolved questions, targeted observational studies are required to understand foraging strategies and the mechanisms underlying mixed species group formation and behaviour (Syme et al, 2021).…”

First reported observation of an apparent reproductive bottlenose × Risso’s dolphin hybrid

“…These sightings include reports of a female bottlenose dolphin with a calf together with a group of Risso’s dolphins (see Results), a single adult bottlenose dolphin sighted with Risso’s dolphins, and a single adult Risso’s dolphin sighted amongst bottlenose dolphins. Bottlenose dolphin–Risso’s dolphin mixed‐species groups have also been reported outside of UK waters (reviewed by Syme, Kiszka & Parra, 2021). Additionally, there are documented strandings of three apparent bottlenose × Risso’s dolphin hybrids in Ireland (Fraser, 1940).…”

“…In general, the fitness of animal hybrids is low as they are typically sterile or non‐viable (stillborn or die shortly after birth). Increasing numbers of putative or confirmed hybridization events among marine mammal species are being reported, with detection based on the assessment of morphological traits (with hybrids typically demonstrating intermediate morphological characteristics compared with the parent species) and/or genetics (for reviews, see: Bérubé, 2009; Crossman, Taylor & Barrett‐Lennard, 2016; Syme, Kiszka & Parra, 2021).…”

Functional Roles and Ecological Importance of Small Cetaceans in Aquatic Ecosystems

“…Similarly, spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) around tropical islands and atolls use shallow lagoons, bays, and shallow reef banks for resting and socializing after foraging offshore at night on mesopelagic prey, and this strategy seem to be driven by predation risk from large sharks and possibly large delphinids (Norris and Dohl, 1980;Heithaus, 2001;Kiszka et al, 2011). Several delphinid species are also known to form mixed-species groups to increase vigilance and dilute attack probabilities on individual group members in habitats where predation risk is perceived as high (see Syme et al, 2021, for a review). These "associations" can be initiated by one species and also result in a habitat shift, where one will move from its preferred habitat to the habitat preferentially used by another to associate with it.…”