Dynamics of oppression and coping from traumatology perspective: The example of Palestinian adolescents.

Abstract

Most of our understanding of, and interventions with, trauma are focused on past traumas perpetrated by individuals. Because of this individualistic-based paradigm, most research on oppression adopts an interpersonal violence framework, ignoring the other identity-based variables involved in intergroup trauma. In this study, we test a new paradigm of oppression as perpetration of trauma between groups, including the variables of will to survive and related coping strategies. The new model assumes that collective trauma of oppression brings to the individual’s focus his or her collective identity and triggers identity annihilation and subjugation anxiety that drive mental health distress. On the other hand, will to survive engenders various strategies, which serve to address oppression challenges and to cope with such distress. We tested the model on a sample of 438 Palestinian adolescents (aged 12 to 19 years; 45.4% females) from the West Bank. We measured life traumas—including oppression, poverty, and will to survive—as independent variables, and identity salience, annihilation anxiety, and coping strategies as mediating variables. We measured posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), complex PTSD, depression, and physical health as outcome variables. Results of path analysis confirmed the general model and indicated that religious coping, political ideology, and social support contributed to reducing mental distress, with religiosity as the strongest predictor, which may explain the electoral success of Islamists in the Palestinian election of 2006 and elections following the Arab Spring. The implications of the results for conflict resolution and in clinical interventions with intergroup trauma victims are discussed.

A Conceptual Model and Measurement of Identity-Based, Existential Annihilation Anxieties (EAA)

“…AA highly associated with the CTD-Dissociation/Psychosis Sub-scale. The research found similar results in subsequent studies on Palestinians (Kira, Alawneh, Aboumediene, Lewandowski, & Laddis, 2014), and Syrians refugees (Kira, Shuwiekh, Rice, Ibraheem, & Aljakoub, 2017).…”

“…Group-based violence is one of the current challenges to our discipline. Yet, political psychology recognizes the importance of the concept of collective annihilation anxieties in the Holocaust and genocides studies (e.g., Hirschberger, Ein-Dor, Leidner, & Saguy, 2016;Kira, Alawneh, Aboumediene, Lewandowski, & Laddis, 2014;Shrira, 2015;Yair, 2014;Wohl, Branscombe, & Reysen, 2010).…”

Gender Discrimination (GD): A Conceptual Trauma-Based Framework for GD and the Development of Gender Discrimination Inventory

“…Gender discrimination, comprises of micro (e.g., implicit and explicit insults to identity status and exclusions that constitute identity threats) as well as macro aggressions (e.g., gender-based violence, trafficking, honor killing, rape, female genital mutilation, hate crimes) which additionally constitute secondary or vicarious traumas for other not directly affected females. GD may also intersect with other social oppressions and discriminations, such as socio-economic inequalities and relative deprivations, and ethnic and racial discriminations (e.g., Denton, & Walters, 1999), which amplify its effects yielding linear and non-linear cumulative dynamics (Kira, Alawneh, Aboumediene, Lewandowski, & Laddis, 2014). There is experimental evidence that threats to social identity can trigger social deviance, which was driven by the tendency to construe social identity threats not as isolated incidents but as symbolic of the continuing devaluation and disrespectful treatment of one's group (e.g., Belmi, Barragan, Neale, & Cohen, 2015).…”

“…Endorsed rationalization and submission to inferior status create a sense of violated/hyphenated/or marginalized self, degraded self-worth, and deficient self-efficacy and poor self-control which are keys to mental health (e.g., Corrigan, Watson, & Barr, 2006). Several studies and meta-analyses substantiate the association of different discriminations with negative health and mental health including post-trauma spectrum disorders such as depression, PTSD, and complex PTSD (e.g., Helms, Nicolas, & Green, 2010;Kira, Alawneh, Aboumediene, Lewandowski, & Laddis, 2014;Kira, Lewandowski, Chiodo, & Ibrahim, 2014;Kira, Smith, Lewandowski, & Templin, 2010;; for meta-analysis see: Pascoe & Richman, 2009;Schmitt, Branscombe, Postmes, & Garcia, 2014). Further, discrimination may negatively affect performance through stereotype threat, among other dynamics (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).…”

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“…While some risk factors for PTSD have been identified, more research is needed. Limited research on protective factors of displaced individuals or those living in oppressed communities (e.g., Palestinians) found that young people with strong ethnic identification, abilities to obtain social support, and those who relied upon religious coping had better mental health outcomes, with some gender differences noted (Ellis, MacDonald, Lincoln, & Cabral, 2008;Kira, Alawneh, Aboumediene, Lewandowski, & Laddis, 2014). As researchers continue to explore the impact of trauma on young refugees, it is important to understand the long-term impact of trauma, to engage in greater research on protective factors buffering the impact of trauma, and to highlight environmental factors and government policies that may better support the adaptations of young refugees.…”