E-Waste Driven Pollution in Pakistan: The First Evidence of Environmental and Human Exposure to Flame Retardants (FRs) in Karachi City

Abstract

Informal e-waste recycling activities have been shown to be a major emitter of organic flame retardants (FRs), contributing to both environmental and human exposure to laborers at e-waste recycling sites in some West African countries, as well as in China and India. The main objective of this study was to determine the levels of selected organic FRs in both air and soil samples collected from areas with intensive informal e-waste recycling activities in Karachi, Pakistan. Dechlorane Plus (DP) and "novel" brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were often detected in high concentrations in soils, while phosphorus-based FRs (OPFRs) dominated atmospheric samples. Among individual substances and substance groups, decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) (726 ng/g), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) (551 ng/g), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE) (362 ng/g), and triphenyl-phosphate (∑TPP) (296 ng/g) were found to be prevalent in soils, while OPFR congeners (5903-24986 ng/m) were prevalent in air. The two major e-waste recycling areas (Shershah and Lyari) were highly contaminated with FRs, suggesting informal e-waste recycling activities as a major emission source of FRs in the environment in Karachi City. However, the hazards associated with exposure to PM appear to exceed those attributed to exposure to selected FRs via inhalation and soil ingestion.

The Intention to Adopt Green IT Products in Pakistan: Driven by the Modified Theory of Consumption Values

“…Being a developing country, Pakistan is suffering from the emerging issue of e-waste, as Pakistan has generated 317 kilos Mt e-waste in 2015 [27]. Pakistan has been considered to be one of the major importers of electronic and electrical products and it has become the leading e-waste disposal destination [28,29]. Due to the growth in GDP and high spending on electronic and electric products by households, organizations, and the industry sector, Pakistan is suffering by e-waste i.e., the first order effect of IT products.…”

The Influencing Factors on Choice Behavior Regarding Green Electronic Products: Based on the Green Perceived Value Model

“…Like other developing countries, Pakistan is facing an adverse effect of e-waste. In 2015, almost 317 kilo Mt of e-waste were generated in Pakistan (Iqbal et al 2017), which has become the leading e-waste disposal destination due to low-cost labor availability and non-implementation of strict environmental laws as compared to China and India (Imran et al 2017;Sajid et al 2019). Moreover, Pakistan has imported electrical equipment worth USD 4.7 billion, the third largest import of Pakistan, in 2017 (Workman 2018).…”

Micronucleus Evaluation in Exfoliated Human Buccal Epithelium Cells among E-Waste Workers in Payatas, the Philippines

“…People living in e-waste recycling sites or working in e-waste recycling have evidence of greater DNA damage than those living in the control towns with increased frequencies of binucleated cells in their peripheral blood. 47 , 48 As seen in previous studies, outcomes associated with exposure to e-wastes include changes in thyroid function, changes in cellular expression and function, adverse neonatal outcomes, changes in temperament and behavior, decreased lung function, increase in spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, premature births, and reduced birth weight and length. 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 Although exposure to e-waste is implicated in DNA damage, studies generally do not have the power to exclude other contributory factors.…”