Early evidence of stone tool use in bone working activities at Qesem Cave, Israel

Abstract

For a long while, the controversy surrounding several bone tools coming from pre-Upper Palaeolithic contexts favoured the view of Homo sapiens as the only species of the genus Homo capable of modifying animal bones into specialised tools. However, evidence such as South African Early Stone Age modified bones, European Lower Palaeolithic flaked bone tools, along with Middle and Late Pleistocene bone retouchers, led to a re-evaluation of the conception of Homo sapiens as the exclusive manufacturer of specialised bone tools. The evidence presented herein include use wear and bone residues identified on two flint scrapers as well as a sawing mark on a fallow deer tibia, not associated with butchering activities. Dated to more than 300 kya, the evidence here presented is among the earliest related to tool-assisted bone working intended for non-dietary purposes, and contributes to the debate over the recognition of bone working as a much older behaviour than previously thought. The results of this study come from the application of a combined methodological approach, comprising use wear analysis, residue analysis, and taphonomy. This approach allowed for the retrieval of both direct and indirect evidence of tool-assisted bone working, at the Lower Palaeolithic site of Qesem Cave (Israel).

Shaped stone balls were used for bone marrow extraction at Lower Paleolithic Qesem Cave, Israel

“…The friction between the experimental SSB stone surface on the bone also produced a very specific tribological alteration of such whitish amorphous material, which acquired in some cases a glossy-like appearance ( Fig 15A). A similar modification has already been identified and associated to the heat generated on the residue during bone processing [79]). On our experimental record, the correlation between the formation of a glossy film on top of the residue and use-related traces is suggested by the co-presence of compressed spots of glossy matter deeply striated due to the friction (Fig 11D).…”

Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy confirm ochre residues on 71 000‐year‐old bifacial tools from Sibudu, South Africa

“…Fourier transform – infrared reflectance spectroscopy (FT–IR) has already been used successfully to identify organic micro‐residues on archaeological (Zupancich et al . ) and replicated stone tools (Prinsloo et al . ).…”

The use of ash at Late Lower Paleolithic Qesem Cave, Israel—An integrated study of use-wear and residue analysis

“…The archaeological evidence from Qesem Cave indicates a series of novel human behaviours, especially when compared to the predating Lower Paleolithic Acheulian. This is evidenced by a plethora of lithic techno-typological innovations, among which are found largescale systematic blade production, the production of Quina and demi-Quina scrapers, largescale recycling of discarded flakes and blades as well as patinated items, and the recycling of bone fragments into retouchers, to name but a few such innovations [37][38][39][40][41][42]. Another outstanding innovation was the early habitual, use of fire at the site [37,43].…”

“…The exceptionally well-preserved lithic industry at Qesem Cave, has allowed for past detailed use-wear investigations and the identification of various activities carried out with blades, Quina scrapers and the (small) products of recycled flakes and blades in various areas of the site in both Amudian and Yabrudian assemblages (S1 Table in S1 File) [38,[44][45][46][47][48]. Butchering and hide-working are among the most frequently represented activities evidenced at the site, with the exception of the hearth area.…”

“…The replicas were knapped from a flint source that is similar to the raw material from which the studied archaeological lithic items were made. Since various use wear analyses previously applied to lithic assemblages of Qesem Cave [38,[44][45][46][47][48] did not reveal consistent data supporting their hafting, blade replicas were all used free-hand. Experimental activities included ash-free cutting of fresh fleshy tissues, cutting fresh hide, scraping fresh hide, cutting dry hide, and scraping dry hide.…”