Early Renaissance Production Recipes for Naples Yellow Pigment: A Mineralogical and Lead Isotope Study of Italian Majolica from Montelupo (Florence)

Abstract

The Naples Yellow pigment was apparently used for the first time by the Egyptians, as a glass-colouring agent. Also known in the Mesopotamian and Roman cultures, the recipe was lost in Western Europe between the fourth and the 16th centuries AD. The recipe for the production of lead antimonate recently discovered in the 'Codice Calabranci' (second half of the 15th century) at Montelupo, a small town near Florence (Italy) known for its large-scale ceramic production, possibly represents the very first evidence of the reintroduction of Naples Yellow in Western Europe after a long period of absence. The major-element composition of the lead antimonate pigment in the Montelupo ceramics of the 15th and 16th centuries is in accordance with the 'Codice Calabranci' recipes. Lead isotope analyses indicate that the lead used to produce the yellow pigments and the underlying glaze of the Montelupo majolica did not come from the Tuscan mining districts, but was possibly imported via Venice from more distant lead sources in Turkey.

Technological evolution of ceramic glazes in the renaissance: In situ analysis of tiles in the Alcazar (Seville, Spain)

“…The two sets of majolica ceramics are different in typology and composition. It is interesting to compare their glaze microstructures and chemistries in an attempt to relate them to other analyses on tiles attributed to Pisano and on majolica objects, as well as on 50 Italian ceramic objects produced during the 14th‐16th centuries, as reviewed by Tite . Tite noted that double layer glazes were common in the 16th century, with 300‐600 μm thick glazes similar to those observed by Antonelli et al for nineteen 15th‐16th century ceramics.…”

“…The colors are obtained with the usual ions, Co in blue (0.4‐0.5 wt% CoO), Cu in green (2% CuO) and Fe in yellow (2 wt% Fe 2 O 3 ; up to 4 wt% in beige/honey/amber). In contrast to majolicas , no Sb was found in yellow glazes although its use has been known since the second millennium B.C . These characteristics are common to all the arista tiles studied by Coentro et al except that they found two green glazes containing Sn (2.5‐8.6 wt% SnO 2 ) in two arist a tiles from Seville belonging to the Instituto Valencia de Don Juan collection.…”

“…A dozen cross‐sections have been examined. Optical microscopy (OM) shows that glazes frequently include two layers as observed for Renaissance majolica wares …”

“…They suggest a coloration due to Naples yellow (Pb 2 Sb 2 O 7 ) that usually gives a “lemon” yellow unlike the orange/brown color ubiquitous on the Altarpiece (Figure ). Yellow hues can be modified by changing the Pb‐antimonate stoichiometry or by partial substitution of Sb with cations such as Si, Fe, Zn, etc . Zn was present in four XRF spectra taken in the blonde hair of the Virgin and of the second woman to the right (Visitation; Figure ).…”

“…Conversely, the innovation that appeared in Italy with majolica style makes it possible to “paint” directly on ceramics covered with white opaque glazes. In 1557, Piccolpasso published his treatise on the potter's art that describes the preparation techniques for colored glazes; all the aspects of majolica fabrication have been discussed by Tite, who confirms Piccolpasso's description thanks to microstructural and chemical observations . Very briefly, water suspensions with the ingredients for white glazes (Pb‐Sn silicates) were applied to ceramic bodies (fired around 1000°C).…”