Eating Frequency is Associated With Energy Intake but Not Obesity in Midlife Women

Abstract

Midlife women tend to gain weight with age, thus increasing risk of chronic disease. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between overweight/obesity and behavioral factors, including eating frequency, in a cross‐sectional national sample of midlife women (n = 1,099) (mean age = 49.7 years, and BMI = 27.7 kg/m2). Eating behaviors and food and nutrient intakes were based on a mailed 1‐day food record. BMI was calculated from self‐reported height and weight, and level of physical activity was assessed by self‐reported questionnaire. After exclusion of low‐energy reporters (32% of sample), eating frequency was not associated with overweight/obesity (P > 0.05) and was not different between BMI groups (normal, 5.21 ± 1.79; overweight, 5.16 ± 1.74; obese, 5.12 ± 1.68, P = 0.769). Adjusted logistic regression showed that eating frequency, snacking frequency, breakfast consumption, eating after 10 pm and consuming meals with children or other adults were not significantly associated with overweight/obesity. Total energy intake increased as eating frequency increased in all BMI groups, however, obese women had greater energy intake compared to normal weight women who consumed the same number of meals and snacks. Intake of fruit and vegetables, whole grains, dietary fiber, dairy, and added sugars also increased as eating frequency increased. While eating frequency was not associated with overweight/obesity, it was associated with energy intake. Thus, addressing total energy intake rather than eating frequency may be more appropriate to prevent weight gain among midlife women.

Associations between meal and snack frequency and diet quality and adiposity measures in British adults: findings from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey

“…Many epidemiological studies have investigated the association between eating frequency (EF) and adiposity measures, but the results are highly inconsistent with a mixture of inverse (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7) , null (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13) and positive (14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) associations. The associations between EF and food and nutrient intakes are equally inconclusive (2,6,7,15,(21)(22)(23) .…”

Snack frequency: associations with healthy and unhealthy food choices

“…Snacking can increase the opportunity for healthy, low-energy food choices, resulting in a wider variety of foods in the diet and a balanced intake of nutrients contributing significantly to daily micro-and macronutrient intakes (7)(8)(9) .…”

Meal and snack frequency in relation to diet quality in US children and adolescents: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2012

“…EF. Eating occasions were defined as any occasion when any food or drink was consumed (24)(25)(26)30) . In many previous studies, if two eating occasions occurred in ≤15 min, both events were counted as a single eating occasion; when >15 min separated two eating occasions, these were considered distinct eating occasions (20,21,23,24,30) .…”

“…EF was calculated based on all eating occasions except for those providing <210 kJ of energy. This calculation method has been used in several previous studies (21,(24)(25)(26)30) and was chosen to avoid giving undue weight to eating occasions that included only water, low-calorie beverages or small quantities of foods.…”

“…Second, there is no consensus about what constitutes a snack, a meal or an eating occasion. While some studies have relied on respondents' self-identification of meals, snacks or eating occasions (8)(9)(10)(11)(15)(16)(17)(18)25,26) , others have tried to apply more objective criteria (19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(27)(28)(29)(30) . Third, the associations between EF and dietary intake may be confounded by the under-reporting of EF accompanied by the under-reporting of energy intake (EI), particularly by obese or overweight individuals (12,13) .…”