Ecological, Historical, Economic, and Political Factors Shaping the Human–Gorilla Interface in the Mone-Oku Forest, Cameroon

Abstract

Cross River gorillas are the least numerous of the African ape taxa. Since their rediscovery, several organisations have sought to conserve these critically endangered apes, resulting in a “crisis conservation narrative” focused on the threats posed by local human activities. However, landscapes are not just ecological, they are also social, shaped by political and economic processes. This study examines the interconnections between humans and gorillas by approaching the Mone-Oku forest as a combination of ecological, social, and political systems. Through a combined use of botanical surveys, analyses of nesting sites, participant observation, and semistructured interviews, we obtained nuanced ecological and ethnographic insights into the human–gorilla interface. The results illustrate a history of alterations within the Mone-Oku forest, some of which are human-induced. These alterations have had both positive and negative outcomes for the gorillas and continue to the present day, where political history has shaped limited livelihood alternatives, increasing the reliance on a forest that has remained a constant in the more recent history of “developmental” neglect and isolation. However, this situation is not static, with future alterations to the forest also subject to regional and international political and economic influences, such as the increased worldwide demand for cacao.

Environmental and anthropogenic effects on the nesting patterns of Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in North‐West Cameroon

“…These results further support previous work that chimpanzees prefer tall trees with high lowest branch height for nesting (Hakizimana et al, 2015; Hernandez‐Aguilar et al, 2013). At Mon‐Oku Forest in Cameroon, tall and large trees were also selected trees to build multiple nests (Wade, 2020). Fowler (2006) reported that nesting trees' mean height and diameter were higher than those of surrounding non‐nesting trees at Gashaka‐Gumti‐National Park in Nigeria.…”

“…Furthermore, Strombosia sp. was among the most used tree species by chimpanzees for nest building in Ebo forest and Mbam and Djerem (Abwe, 2018), Babanki‐Finge (Doumbé, 2014), Mone‐Oku Forest Reserve (Wade, 2020), and Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Dutton et al, 2016). At Albert Lake escarpment, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, M. myristica , followed by Strombosia sp.…”

“…Since the recognition of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee subspecies in 1997 (Gonder et al, 1997), several studies have been conducted to improve our understanding of their nesting behavior at several sites, including the selection of nest trees and areas in relation to ecological conditions and human activity in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Dutton et al, 2016) and Gashaka‐Gumti National Park (Fowler, 2006) in Nigeria. In Cameroon, recent studies focused on the selection of nest locations in relation to the availability of fruits in Ebo Forest Reserve (Abwe, 2018), the effects of preference for a particular habitat type and topography in Mbam‐Djerem National Park (Kamgang et al, 2018), and in Ebo Forest Reserve (Abwe, 2018), the effect of human activity on arboreal and ground nest location in Lebialem‐Mone Forest (Last & Muh, 2013), Tolafa Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (Njukang et al, 2019), Mone‐Oku Forest (Wade, 2020), and Babanki–Finge Forest (Doumbé, 2014). However, information on nesting behavior of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee is still missing from priority conservation areas as outlined in the IUCN‐endorsed regional conservation action plan (Morgan et al, 2011).…”

Fluid hunter motivation in Central Africa: Effects on behaviour, bushmeat and income

“…The generally low prevalence of strictly commercial hunters and hunts suggests that van Vliet and Nasi's (2008a) finding from our study area that ‘there appears to be no clear tendency to abandon subsistence hunting for commercial hunting as in other regions of Africa’ remains the case over 15 years later. Ethnographic research could help better understand underlying hunting motivation and how they are changing (or not) over longer time scales and across social–ecological conditions not addressed in this study (Blaser, 2009; Gibson, 2020; Moon et al, 2019; Shaffer et al, 2018; Wade & Malone, 2021). Further and more broadly, contextualizing detailed linkages like those our models provide here with theory on human motivation and behaviour could provide a foundation for longer‐term predictions of changes in subsistence‐commercial gradients of CPR use over time.…”

Apes and Agriculture

“…Also, in Côte d'Ivoire, cacao was the main crop grown inside the national parks and forest reserves surveyed in one study, being present in 20 of 23 protected areas (Bitty et al, 2015;Kouassi et al, 2021), threatening "protected" Western chimpanzee populations (Barima et al, 2020;Abu et al, 2021). As cacao is a perennial crop, it may have some value for chimpanzees as a dispersal habitat, though the animals sometimes forage on cacao crops at times of low fruit availability (Humle, 2003;Tehoda et al, 2017;Payne, 2019;Wade, 2020). Rice and cassava are also targeted by chimpanzees in, for example Sierra Leone (Garriga et al, 2018) and Guinea , although other species such as cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus), can cause more damage (Garriga et al, 2018).…”