Ecology and conservation of ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in a changing world

Abstract

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is an uncommon to rare understory plant of the eastern deciduous forest. Harvesting to supply the Asian traditional medicine market made ginseng North America's most harvested wild plant for two centuries, eventually prompting a listing on CITES Appendix II. The prominence of this representative understory plant has led to its use as a phytometer to better understand how environmental changes are affecting many lesser-known species that constitute the diverse temperate flora of eastern North America. We review recent scientific findings concerning this remarkable phytometer species, identifying factors through its history of direct and indirect interactions with humans that have led to the current condition of the species. Harvest, deer browse, and climate change effects have been studied in detail, and all represent unique interacting threats to ginseng's long-term persistence. Finally, we synthesize our current understanding by portraying ginseng's existence in thousands of small populations, precariously poised to either escape or be drawn further toward extinction by the actions of our own species.

NMR characterization of novel pyranoanthocyanins derived from the pulp of Panax quinquefolius L. (North American ginseng)

“…3). There will also be new peaks for the 1 Hs from the phenol group of the hydroxycinnamic acid (the E-ring shown in Fig. 3).…”

“…The species is most often found growing among the forest detritus in cool, moist, and well-shaded environments. [1,2] Prior to its discovery by the French in the 1700s, the herb was known only to indigenous cultures. However, taxonomic analysis revealed a relationship between P. quinquefolius and its close relative Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng).…”

“…Overharvesting also became a problem in North America; today, P. quinquefolius is grown commercially under artificial shade in an attempt to meet market demands. [1] Currently, the berries produced by the ginseng plant are harvested for their seeds for plant propagation and the remaining pulp is discarded, a by-product of the ginseng industry. [6] HPLC analysis shows that the berries also contain a number of the ginsenosides found in the plant's root, [7] suggesting the berries may also possess medicinal properties.…”

Synergistic effects of climate change and harvest on extinction risk of American ginseng

“…Ginseng is a wild-harvested species, primarily exported to China, where the root is highly valued in traditional Chinese medicine (McGraw et al 2013). In 1975, ginseng was listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) amidst growing concern that unregulated harvest was leading to increased scarcity.…”

Genetic structure of the American ginseng (Panax quinquefoliusL.) in Eastern Canada using reduced-representation high-throughput sequencing

“…It has been harvested for its fleshy root used for a wide range of medicinal purposes for more than 300 years (Robbins 1998, McGraw et al 2013), while concerns due to the harvesting in wild populations were raised as early as 1770 (Kalm 1987). This non-clonal species is indeed highly sensitive to harvest; collecting roots of about 5% of productive plants (i.e., with at least three leaves) every year is enough to induce population decline (Nantel et al 1996).…”