“…Thus, high income level and higher economic growth tends to lower environmental damage, forming an inverted U-shaped relationship between GDP and pollution. Most of these studies have confirmed the existence of the EKC hypothesis in contexts such as Australia (Churchill et al, 2020), Jamaica (Brown et al, 2020), highly globalized OECD countries (Leal & Marques, 2020), Middle East and North Africa (MENA) (Cheikh et al, 2020;Amirnejad et al, 2021), resource-based countries (Badeeb et al, 2020), China (Ahmad et al, 2021;Pata & Caglar, 2021;Xie et al, 2019;Xu et al, 2020), European countries (Boubellouta & Kusch-Brandt, 2020) and several African countries (Mahmood et al, 2020;Ekeocha, 2021). The majority of these studies utilized CO 2 emission as an indicator of pollution (Churchill et al, 2020;Badeeb et al, 2020;Cheikh et al, 2020;Pata & Caglar, 2021;Ahmad et al, 2021;Abokyi et al, 2021).…”