Educational Differences, Value of Children and Fertility Outcomes in Germany

Abstract

Referring to the dependence of income and occupational opportunities on education as well as to the lower compatibility between career and parenthood for women, educational differences of family foundation rates are being interpreted as an expression of different opportunity costs by many researchers (opportunity cost hypothesis). This hypothesis is discussed and analysed in this article for the German case drawing on the German Family Survey (Familiensurvey). The analysis considers two aspects of fertility motivation: on the one hand, it refers to educational level and the perceived value of children for (potential) parents; on the other, it examines the behavioural relevance of these fertility motivations. The empirical results from national representative longitudinal data question the opportunity cost hypothesis. Neither the perception of the incompatibility between career and motherhood nor its effect on the desire to become a parent are stronger for more highly educated women than for women with a lower formal educational level. Moreover, the article provides empirical evidence that the well-known educational differentiation of family formation rates is associated with child-related utility expectations, such as stimulation and affect.

Dimensions of Family Policy and Female Labor Market Participation: Analyzing Group-Specific Policy Effects

“…Although the focus is on married/cohabiting women with children who, per definition, are the target group of family policy, mothers are not homogeneous with respect to how their employment behavior is influenced by particular policy measures (Hakim 1996, 2004, 2003). In order to assess family policy effects on the employment behavior of mothers, their propensity to work needs to be taken into account, with the latter determined by a mother's opportunities and preferences (Crompton and Harris 1999; Kan 2007; Klein and Eckhard 2007, 522; Stier, Noah, and Braun 2001).…”

“…Opportunities in this context refer to the possibilities for and constraints to employment. Three aspects are of importance: First, employment opportunities refer to a mother's chances and risks in the labor market (Bratti 2003, 529; Klein and Eckhard 2007). The quality of a woman's potential job, her potential wage given her education and experiences, as well as the risk of unemployment define the opportunities mothers have in the labor market (Leibowitz and Klerman 1995).…”

“…Third, employment opportunities can also be perceived in a negative way, that is, the absence of choice. This situation is present if employment is necessary for economic reasons, meaning that nonemployment is not a realistic option (see Klein and Eckhard 2007, 522).…”

Children, Value of

“…Although one might expect the opportunity costs for mother's employment to increase with socioeconomic status, well-paid mothers can purchase substitute care. Klein and Eckhard (2007) found no differences in the perceived opportunity costs of children or in their effects on childbearing across socioeconomic levels.…”

Desenvolvimento e Validação Factorial da Escala de Motivos face à Parentalidade

“…In fact, most studies focus on the intention to have a child, neglecting the motives that lie behind this decision. However, inducing motives based on observed behavior does not permit appropriate explanations (Klein & Eckhard, 2007). To have a more comprehensive analysis of this phenomenon, the motives underlying the intent to have a child, the intention itself and the effective behavior should be distinguished.…”