Nearly 11 million Americans, half of which are nonelderly, need long-term supports and services (Kaye, Harrington, & LaPlante, 2010), including personal assistance services, home and community-based services, and institutional services (Ng, Harrington, & Kitchener, 2010). The paid supports and services these individuals receive are funded primarily through Medicaid and are traditionally provided through agency direction models that provide little opportunity for participant decision-making regarding the services provided (Clark, Hagglund, & Sherman, 2008;O'Keeffe, Wiener, & Greene, 2005). Individuals are recipients of the agency's services and the agency generally recruits, hires, trains, schedules, manages, disciplines, and pays the service providers, determining provider wages and job tasks (Jamison Rissi, 2007).Conversely, participant direction models hold that individuals or their surrogate decision-makers (hereafter referred to as "participants") should "have the primary authority to make choices that work best for them, regardless of the nature or extent of their disability or the source of payment for services" (National Institute on Consumer-Directed Long-Term Services, 1996, p. 3). As such, service providers work for participants, and participants may have input or authority over multiple aspects of service delivery, including how money is spent, how and where services are implemented, and who provides them. However, there are many variations in these programs that blur the line that divides agency direction and participant direction programs.There is a "lack of clarity of what is meant by [participant] direction" (Infeld, 2005, p. 14), and no two programs are identical. Programs of participant direction vary in a myriad of ways: (a) number of participants enrolled (e.g., fewer than 100 participants to more than 5,000 participants; Doty & Flanagan, 2002), (b) disabilities of participants 502538D PSXXX10.