Effect of Cheese Intake on Cardiovascular Diseases and Cardiovascular Biomarkers

Abstract

Background: A growing number of cohort studies revealed an inverse association between cheese intake and cardiovascular diseases, yet the causal relationship is unclear. Objective: To assess the causal relationship between cheese intake, and cardiovascular diseases and cardiovascular biomarkers. Methods: A two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis based on publicly available genome-wide association studies was employed to infer the causal relationship. The effect estimates were calculated using the random-effects inverse-variance-weighted method. Results: Cheese intake per standard deviation increase causally reduced the risks of type 2 diabetes (odds ratio (OR) = 0.46; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.34–0.63; p = 1.02 × 10−6), heart failure (OR = 0.62; 95% CI, 0.49–0.79; p = 0.0001), coronary heart disease (OR = 0.65; 95% CI, 0.53–0.79; p = 2.01 × 10−5), hypertension (OR = 0.67; 95% CI, 0.53–0.84; p = 0.001), and ischemic stroke (OR = 0.76; 95% CI, 0.63–0.91; p = 0.003). Suggestive evidence of an inverse association between cheese intake and peripheral artery disease was also observed. No associations were observed for atrial fibrillation, cardiac death, pulmonary embolism, or transient ischemic attack. The better prognosis associated with cheese intake may be explained by lower body mass index (BMI; effect estimate = −0.58; 95% CI, from −0.88 to −0.27; p = 0.0002), waist circumference (effect estimate = −0.49; 95% CI, from −0.76 to −0.23; p = 0.0003), triglycerides (effect estimate = −0.33; 95% CI, from −0.50 to −0.17; p = 4.91 × 10−5), and fasting glucose (effect estimate = −0.20; 95% CI, from −0.33 to −0.07; p = 0.0003). There was suggestive evidence of a positive association between cheese intake and high-density lipoprotein. No influences were observed for blood pressure or inflammation biomarkers. Conclusions: This two-sample MR analysis found causally inverse associations between cheese intake and type 2 diabetes, heart failure, coronary heart disease, hypertension, and ischemic stroke.

A machine learning model for disease risk prediction by integrating genetic and non-genetic factors

“…The poultry intake frequency of 2-4 times per week was the most healthy frequency compared to the other frequencies of eating poultry, having a lower risk of CAD (OR=0.235, CI=[0.202, 0.272]) compared with never eating poultry. These three lifestyles were also proven to reduce the risk of CAD in previous studies (walking pace [33]; cheese intake [34]; and poultry intake [35]). Besides, the tobacco smoking on most or all day significantly increased the risk of CAD compared with no tobacco smoking in the present, and the other lifestyles had weak impacts on the disease risk ( Fig.…”

Lack of causal association between cheese intake and risk of peripheral vascular diseases: A two‐sample Mendelian randomization study

“…Although cheese is a full-fat dairy product that may be intuitively linked to increased risk of PAD and abdominal AA due to its high saturated fatty acid content and effect on blood cholesterol levels [24][25][26], a study by Ageno et al failed to demonstrate LDL-cholesterol as a risk factor for DVT and PE [27]. Moreover, a MR analysis indicated that cheese intake was inversely associated with PAD, with no observed associations for PE [10]. It is worth noting that evaluating the effect of cheese on PVDs based solely on saturated fatty acids may be inadequate, as the impact of food on a single biomarker such as blood cholesterol may not fully capture the risk of PVDs.…”

“…A systematic review demonstrated that moderate cheese intake (50 g/day) was associated with a lower cardiovascular disease risk, while a multinational prospective cohort study found that cheese intake was linked to a lower risk of mortality and major cardiovascular events [9]. Additionally, a Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis found that cheese intake was inversely associated with peripheral artery disease (PAD), with no observed associations for pulmonary embolism (PE) [10]. Nevertheless, given that PAD is an atherosclerotic occlusive disease, some studies suggested that cheese intake may have a positive association with atherosclerosis.…”

The causal relationship between cheese intake and peripheral vascular disease: A two-sample mendelian randomization study

“…Although cheese was a full-fat dairy product that may be intuitively linked to increased risk of PAD and abdominal aortic aneurysm due to its high saturated fatty acid content and effect on blood cholesterol levels [20][21][22], a study by Ageno et al failed to demonstrate LDL-cholesterol as a risk factor for DVT and PE [23]. Moreover, a mendelian randomization analysis indicated that cheese intake was inversely associated with PAD, with no observed associations for PE [10]. It is worth noting that evaluating the effect of cheese on PVDs based solely on saturated fatty acids may be inadequate, as the impact of food on a single biomarker such as blood cholesterol may not fully capture the risk of PVDs.…”

“…A systematic review demonstrated that moderate cheese intake (50 g/day) was associated with a lower cardiovascular disease risk, while a multinational prospective cohort study found that cheese intake was linked to a lower risk of mortality and major cardiovascular events [9]. Additionally, a mendelian randomization analysis found that cheese intake was inversely associated with peripheral artery disease (PVD), with no observed associations for pulmonary embolism [10]. Nevertheless, given that PAD is an atherosclerotic occlusive disease, some studies suggested that cheese intake may have a positive association with atherosclerosis.…”