“…The production of virgin olive oil (VOO) has increased widely in the last decade due to the growing interest in the consumption of this product around the world ( IOC, 2020 ; Boudebouz, 2021 ; Xia et al., 2022 ). Its production is exclusively by physical–mechanical procedures or at least with the addition of specific adjuvants, which often leads to difficulties in reaching a sufficiently good extraction efficiency ( Caponio et al., 2016 ; Khaleghi et al., 2023 ; Tamborrino et al., 2023 ). Although new processing technologies, such as the application of heat exchangers, ultrasound, pulsed electric field, microwaves, and vacuum technology, can improve oil extraction, it is always important to consider the interaction between the characteristics of the olives and the extraction device ( Taticchi et al., 2013 ; Gila et al., 2015 ; Pérez et al., 2021 ; Sánchez et al., 2022 ; Khaleghi et al., 2023 ; Nardella et al., 2023 ).…”