Effect of long-term use of apple orchard on selected chemical properties of soils developed from silts

10-Years Studies of the Soil Physical Condition after One-Time Biochar Application

“…soil texture-particle size distributions (PSD)-with Casagrande method modified by Prószy ński [53], -particle density (PD)-with the pycnometric method [54] (Mg × m −3 ), -bulk density (BD)-with the gravimetric method, from the ratio of the mass of soil dried at 105 • C to the initial soil volume of 100 cm 3 [55] (Mg × m −3 ), -total porosity (TP) was calculated from the results of particle density (PD) and bulk density (BD), TP = 1 − BD/PD [56] (m 3 × m −3 ), -air capacity at the potential of −15.5 kPa (FAC) was derived from the results of total porosity (TP) and field water capacity (FC) (−15.5 kPa), FAC = TP−FC [56] (m 3 × m −3 ), -air permeability at the potential of −15.5 kPa (FAP) was measured using an apparatus for the measurement of permeability of molding sand, LPiR-2e [7][8][9]. The measurements were conducted at vertical (upward) airflow through the soil sample.…”

“…Such changes can only marginally affect, e.g., soil compaction or/and air-water properties. The authors of some papers [5,7,8] have stressed that high rates of different soil-applied materials, both mineral and organic ones, result in a significant change in particle size distribution. The soil texture is then restructured towards the one that is determined by the type of the material applied to the soil [15,24,42].…”

“…Therefore, an important element in management of soils is to prevent their degradation. Taking preventive actions is considered to be a better approach than the subsequent implementation of soil remediation measures [5][6][7][8][9]. Soil is an irreplaceable element of the environment and it is subjected to the pressure of various degrading factors.…”

“…Soil is a complex medium that undergoes dynamic changes both in time and on its surface [16][17][18][19][20]. The properties of soil can be modified by incorporating diverse mineral and/or organic materials into it [6,7,15,[21][22][23][24]. Waste materials originating from different industries, including agriculture, are used very frequently for this purpose.…”

“…The interest in application of biochar as an environmentally friendly material is growing. A number of environmental benefits arising from the use of biochar are mentioned, e.g.,: (i) soil remediation [7,8,15,28,29]; (ii) increased soil carbon sequestration [29][30][31]; (iii) enhanced soil productivity [27,30,31]; (iv) neutralization of soil acidity [32][33][34]; (v) wastewater treatment [35,36]; (vi) cleaning of air [30,37]; and (vii) reduction in greenhouse gas emissions [27,30,32,38]. The use of biochar is also considered to be an element of sustainable agricultural practice [27,30,31].…”