“…The geometry of surface roughness can be divided into two classes: isolated roughness (Nayfeh and Ragab,1988;Xu et al, 2016;Park and Oh, 2020) and distributed roughness (Lessen and Gangwani, 1976;Corke et al, 1986;Floyan, 2005;Asai and Floyan, 2006;Ma'mun et al, 2014Ma'mun et al, , 2015Tameike et al, 2021). When the height of roughness is large, e.g., on the order of the boundary layer thickness, an isolated roughness or each component of a distributed roughness can trigger a boundary-layer transition through strong inflectional instability directly where the growth stage of the instability waves is bypassed (Doenhoff and Braslow, 1961).…”