Effect of the temperature on the kinetics of cocoa bean shell fat extraction using pressurized ethanol and evaluation of the lipid fraction and defatted meal

Cocoa Bean Shell—A By-Product with Nutritional Properties and Biofunctional Potential

“…Regarding this fraction, Lessa et al [75] found that it is comprised of 34.7% unsaturated fatty acids and 64% saturated fatty acids for non-fermented CBS, and that these percentages vary to 51.2% and 48%, respectively, after fermentation. These values are in accordance with the 0.66-0.74 unsaturated/saturated mass ratio reported by Okiyama et al [36]. Also, phytoprostanes and phytofurans, which are isoprostanoids derived from the peroxidation of α-linoleic acid, have been detected in CBS in quantities of 474.3 and 278.0 ng per gram of dried CBS, respectively [76].…”

“…One of the main mycotoxins found in cocoa products is ochratoxin A (OTA), which has been related to nephrotoxic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressive activities, and is classified as a 2B carcinogen (possible human carcinogen) [211]. Studies have demonstrated that the major OTA percentage of the total cocoa bean is contained in CBS, typically about 50%-95%, with concentrations that generally range between 0.13 and 2.01 µg of OTA per kg of CBS, which is still within the acceptable values determined by the European Commission for cocoa beans (less than 2 µg/kg) [36,[210][211][212], although other authors have reported values of up to 23.1 µg of OTA per kg of CBS [213]. Aflatoxins have also been detected in cocoa products.…”

“…Energy (kcal/100 g) 122.00 [15] Moisture (%) 3.60-13.13 [13,26,27,[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38] Ash (g/100 g) 5.96-11.42 [13,30,33,[35][36][37][38][39][40][41] Proteins (g/100 g) 10.30-27.40 [13,26,27,30,32,[34][35][36][37][38][40][41][42][43][44] Fats (g/100 g) 1.50-8.49 [13,30,32,33,35,37,38,[40][41][42][43][44][45] Carbohydrates (g/100 g) 7.85-70.25…”

“…Again, these values show great variability depending on the research work, mainly due to the polyphenolic extraction conditions and the employed solvents, although the total flavonoid content (TFC) and total tannin content (TTC) are in general well correlated with the TPC values [13,59]. Indeed, several authors have taken interest in this fact and have studied several possibilities in order to optimize different types of CBS polyphenol extraction, using techniques such as supercritical CO 2 , water extraction [60,61,63,90,91], pulsed electric fields [59], high-voltage electric discharges [58,66], pressurized ethanol [36,60,64], or ultrasound techniques [92]. Macroporous resins have been used to increase the total polyphenol content of a CBS extract from 2.23% to 62.87% w/w CBS [93].…”

“…Similar to OTA, aflatoxins can produce hepatotoxic, teratogenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects in humans. Concretely, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 have been detected in CBS in concentrations that range between 0.01-1.00 µg/kg, <0.03-0.02 µg/kg, <0.03-0.44 µg/kg, and <0.03-0.06 µg/kg, respectively, which are still considered as safe values [36,214]. Another mycotoxin detected in CBS was deoxynivalenol, also known as vomitoxin a it creates nausea, which again was found to be concentrated in CBS more than in cocoa nibs, but still in concentrations without posing a risk to human health [215].…”