Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on Chimpanzee Nest Location in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), South West Region, Cameroon

Njukang, Akongte Peter; Angwafor, Tsi Evaristus; Akwanjoh, Seino Richard; Lebga, Aloysious Kohtem

doi:10.22161/ijfaf.3.6.1

Cited by 6 publications

(6 citation statements)

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“…Most primary forest patches remaining in the study area are found at a higher elevation and on steep slopes that are rarely used by humans and harbor tall and mature trees that are important for nesting. Our results support previous findings that primary forest vegetation and high elevation areas are preferred for nesting over secondary forest and lowland areas (Carvalho et al, 2021; Granier et al, 2014; Koops et al, 2012; Njukang et al, 2019). The positive association between primary forest and nest locations reported in this and previous studies may also be due to the presence of a high density of large fleshy fruits trees (Balcomb et al, 2000; Chitayat et al, 2021; Potts et al, 2011), and low impact of human activities (Strindberg et al, 2018).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

“…Since the recognition of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee subspecies in 1997 (Gonder et al, 1997), several studies have been conducted to improve our understanding of their nesting behavior at several sites, including the selection of nest trees and areas in relation to ecological conditions and human activity in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve (Dutton et al, 2016) and Gashaka‐Gumti National Park (Fowler, 2006) in Nigeria. In Cameroon, recent studies focused on the selection of nest locations in relation to the availability of fruits in Ebo Forest Reserve (Abwe, 2018), the effects of preference for a particular habitat type and topography in Mbam‐Djerem National Park (Kamgang et al, 2018), and in Ebo Forest Reserve (Abwe, 2018), the effect of human activity on arboreal and ground nest location in Lebialem‐Mone Forest (Last & Muh, 2013), Tolafa Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (Njukang et al, 2019), Mone‐Oku Forest (Wade, 2020), and Babanki–Finge Forest (Doumbé, 2014). However, information on nesting behavior of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee is still missing from priority conservation areas as outlined in the IUCN‐endorsed regional conservation action plan (Morgan et al, 2011).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Environmental and anthropogenic effects on the nesting patterns of Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in North‐West Cameroon

Fotang

Bröring

Roos

et al. 2021

American J Primatol

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Environmental conditions and human activity influence the selection of nest sites by chimpanzees and may have serious conservation implications. We examined the characteristics of nesting trees preferred by chimpanzees, investigated the effect of vegetation composition and topography on nest site locations and seasonality on nesting heights of chimpanzees, and verified the effect of predator occurrence and human activity on the nesting behavior of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Kom‐Wum Forest Reserve (KWFR) and surrounding unprotected forest in Cameroon. We recorded 923 nests, 502 signs of human activity, and 646 nesting trees along line transects and recces (reconnaissance) for two seasons. We found that chimpanzees constructed more arboreal nests on tall primary trees with high lowest branch height and large diameter at breast height. Moreover, they oriented their nests within trees in the slope direction when the nesting trees were located on slopes. Additionally, the occurrence of chimpanzee nests was positively related to increasing elevation and slope and decreased with distance to primary forest. In contrast, the number of nests increased with distance to secondary forest, open land, and villages, and nesting height was not influenced by seasons. While we recorded no signs of large nocturnal chimpanzee predators at nesting trees, we found signs of hunting activity at nesting locations. Nesting high in trees is likely a way of avoiding hunting, while nest orientation within trees in slope direction shortens escape routes from human hunters. Our findings suggest that chimpanzees select safe trees (tall trees with high lowest branch height) located in nesting areas (primary forest, high elevation, and steep slopes) that are not easily accessible by humans. Therefore, conservation efforts should focus on protecting primary forests at high elevation and steep slopes and reducing human impact.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Environmental and anthropogenic effects on the nesting patterns of Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in North‐West Cameroon

Fotang

Bröring

Roos

et al. 2021

American J Primatol

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“…At Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary in Cameroon, the selection of nesting sites at higher altitudes (800–1000 m) by chimpanzees was linked to the avoidance of high encounter rates with agricultural and logging activities at lower altitudes (Njukang et al. 2019 ). Etiendem et al.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Mapping suitable habitat for Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve, North-Western Cameroon

et al. 2023

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Great apes lose suitable habitats required for their reproduction and survival due to human activities across their distribution range in Africa. Little is known about habitat suitability of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee [Pan troglodytes ellioti (Matschie, 1914)], particularly for populations inhabiting forest reserves in North-West Cameroon. To address this knowledge gap, we employed a common species distribution model (MaxEnt) to map and predict suitable habitats for the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve, North-West Cameroon, based on environmental factors that potentially affect habitat suitability. We related these environmental factors to a dataset of chimpanzee occurrence points recorded during line transect and reconnaissance (recce) surveys in the forest reserve and surrounding forests. Up to 91% of the study area is unsuitable for chimpanzees. Suitable habitats only represented 9% of the study area, with a high proportion of highly suitable habitats located outside the forest reserve. Elevation, secondary forests density, distance to villages and primary forests density were the most important predictors of habitat suitability for the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee. The probability of chimpanzee occurrence increased with elevation, secondary forest density and distance from villages and roads. Our study provides evidence that suitable chimpanzee habitat in the reserve is degraded, suggesting that efforts to maintain protected areas are insufficient. The reserve management plan needs to be improved to conserve the remaining suitable habitat and to avoid local extinction of this endangered subspecies.

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“…Fitzgerald, Coulson, Lawing, Matsuzawa, and Koops (2018) have found a similar shape for chimpanzees in the Greater Nimba Landscape, where the probability of occurrence started to decline at 900 m. At Gombe, the suitability of chimpanzee habitat followed the same shape irrespective of land cover classes with optimum values of suitability being found between 850 and 1,100 m of elevation (Foerster et al, 2016). In the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary, chimpanzee nests were found at high elevations (800–1,000 m) (Njukang, Angwafor, Richard, Akwanjoh, & Chuo, 2019). This indicates that elevation may be a good determinant for the choice of a nesting site by chimpanzees, where the areas with intermediate values of elevation are more suitable.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This corroborates the finding that elevation is a top predictor for many species but not all species (Hof, Jansson, & Nilsson, 2012). Nesting in high altitudes by chimpanzees in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (Cameroon) probably allowed them to minimize the encounter rates with logging and agricultural activities (Njukang et al, 2019). Apart from elevation in the chimpanzee model, the distribution and density of preferred nesting habitats were the most important predictors in the resource models for both gorillas and chimpanzees (Figure 3).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Variation in behavioral traits of two frugivorous mammals may lead to differential responses to human disturbance

Tédonzong

Willie

Makengveu

et al. 2020

Ecology and Evolution

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Human activities can lead to a shift in wildlife species' spatial distribution.Understanding the specific effects of human activities on ranging behavior can improve conservation management of wildlife populations in human-dominated landscapes. This study evaluated the effects of forest use by humans on the spatial distribution of mammal species with different behavioral adaptations, using sympatric western lowland gorilla and central chimpanzee as focal species. We collected data on great ape nest locations, ecological and physical variables (habitat distribution, permanent rivers, and topographic data), and anthropogenic variables (distance to trails, villages, and a permanent research site). Here, we show that anthropogenic variables are important predictors of the distribution of wild animals. In the resource model, the distribution of gorilla nests was predicted by nesting habitat distribution, while chimpanzee nests were predicted first by elevation followed by nesting habitat distribution. In the anthropogenic model, the major predictors of gorilla nesting changed to human features, while the major predictors of chimpanzee nesting remained elevation and the availability of their preferred nesting habitats. Animal behavioral traits (body size, terrestrial/arboreal, level of specialization/ generalization, and competitive inferiority/superiority) may influence the response of mammals to human activities. Our results suggest that chimpanzees may survive in human-encroached areas whenever the availability of their nesting habitat and preferred fruits can support their population, while a certain level of human activities may threaten gorillas. Consequently, the survival of gorillas in human-dominated landscapes is more at risk than that of chimpanzees. Replicating our research in other sites should permit a systematic evaluation of the influence of human activity on the distribution of mammal populations. As wild animals are increasingly exposed to human disturbance, understanding the resulting consequences of shifting species distributions due to human disturbance on animal population abundance and their long-term survival will be of growing conservation importance. | 3799TÉDONZONG eT al. S U PP O RTI N G I N FO R M ATI O NAdditional supporting information may be found online in the Supporting Information section.

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Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on Chimpanzee Nest Location in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), South West Region, Cameroon

Cited by 6 publications

References 0 publications

Environmental and anthropogenic effects on the nesting patterns of Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in North‐West Cameroon

Environmental and anthropogenic effects on the nesting patterns of Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in North‐West Cameroon

Mapping suitable habitat for Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzees in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve, North-Western Cameroon

Variation in behavioral traits of two frugivorous mammals may lead to differential responses to human disturbance

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