“…Noise pollution, ALAN, and food resources could also be factors that can sometimes have severe synergistic effects, and indirectly affect life‐history traits and breeding fitness, when food resources are scarce, noise pollution reduces pairing success and parent‐nestling communication efficiency, and ALAN disrupts circadian rhythms and gonadal growth in urban areas (Dominoni et al, 2013; Dunlap et al, 2003; Swaddle et al, 2015). On the other hand, the interactions between noise pollution, ALAN, and food resources could be synergistically positive due to increased food resources caused by UHI, especially in urban environments, particularly if noise pollution reduces predation risk and ALAN extends species' foraging time (Figure 2; Dominoni, Smit, et al, 2020; Lima, 2009; Wang et al, 2021). Overall, UHI and ALAN often elicit mixed responses, while noise generally has a negative impact on species.…”