Effects of Different Long-Term Exercise Modalities on Tissue Stiffness

Abstract

Stiffness is a fundamental property of living tissues, which may be modified by pathologies or traumatic events but also by nutritional, pharmacological and exercise interventions. This review aimed to understand if specific forms of exercise are able to determine specific forms of tissue stiffness adaptations. A literature search was performed on PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases to identify manuscripts addressing adaptations of tissue stiffness as a consequence of long-term exercise. Muscular, connective, peripheral nerve and arterial stiffness were considered for the purpose of this review. Resistance training, aerobic training, plyometric training and stretching were retrieved as exercise modalities responsible for tissue stiffness adaptations. Differences were observed related to each specific modality. When exercise was applied to pathological cohorts (i.e. tendinopathy or hypertension), stiffness changed towards a physiological condition. Exercise interventions are able to determine tissue stiffness adaptations. These should be considered for specific exercise prescriptions. Future studies should concentrate on identifying the effects of exercise on the stiffness of specific tissues in a broader spectrum of pathological populations, in which a tendency for increased stiffness is observed.

Resistance Training Induces Improvements in Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

“…In contrast, a review by Thomas et al [101] indicated that the loading of a tendon with RT increases its stiffness by modifying elastic properties versus morphological adaptations such as an increased cross-sectional area. This increase in tendon stiffness was not dependent on muscle contraction type, trained state, or age.…”

A Heart Rate Step Function Response Method for the Evaluation of Pulse Wave Velocity as a Predictor of Major Adverse Cardio-Vascular Events

“…The plateau value for HR depends on the cardiorespiratory fitness of the subjects (those who are less fit have higher values of HR) [17]. On the other hand, it is well known that physically trained subjects have good arterial elasticity and low PWV values [18][19][20][21][22][23].…”

Sports Diagnostics—Maximizing the Results or Preventing Injuries

“…Dynamic stiffness-a biomechanical property of the muscle characterized by resistance to contraction or opposition to an external force deforming its initial shape. In the case of abnormally high stiffness, a more significant effort of the agonist's muscle is required to stretch the stiff antagonist, leading to an inefficient economy of movement [32]. In addition, increased muscle stiffness also creates unfavorable conditions for blood circulation and microcirculation, significantly reducing their ability to exercise.…”