Effects of dissolved carbon dioxide on the physiology and behavior of fish in artificial streams

Abstract

A new technology for treating waters contaminated with acid mine drainage involves the dissolution of limestone particles using carbon dioxide at pressures above ambient. Because of the fish health risks associated with episodes of high carbon dioxide levels in treated waters, we subjected three species of fish, brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus), and blacknose dace (Rhinichthys atratulus), to 24 h exposures of elevated dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) at three levels, ranging from 1.0 (low) to 6.3 (high)%, under laboratory conditions. We measured blood physiological variables as well as behavior, including feeding responses, before, during, and after exposure. Physiological responses differed by species, but all species had elevated hematocrits after 1 h of exposure. Brook trout hematocritis were higher at medium and high levels of CO2 than in a control group (0.0% CO2) after 24 h of exposure. Slimy sculpin hematocrits were higher in medium- and high-level exposure groups than in controls after 1 h, but not after 24 h, of exposure. Blacknose dace hematocrits were higher in all three exposure groups than in controls after 1 h but only in medium-level exposure groups after 24 h. Brook trout plasma glucose was significantly higher in medium- and high-level exposure groups after 1 h, and in the high-level group after 24 h, than in controls. Slimy sculpin plasma glucose was not significantly different in elevated CO2 exposure groups from that of controls throughout exposure. Branchial ventilation was significantly greater in all species at elevated CO2 during exposure, indicating stress; however, no difference was observed between treatment and control groups of blacknose dace after 24 h, indicating acclimation. Pectoral fin beats and cough rates were not consistently related to CO2 exposure throughout the study. Brook trout had the longest lasting reaction to stress at lower levels of CO2 among the three species tested. Many of the 11 observed behavioral variables, related to swimming, feeding, social, and illness factors, were affected by elevations of dissolved CO2. Two to seven behavioral variables (18-64% of those measured) were affected by treatment level of dissolved CO2 with a trend by species for the number of variables affected: brook trout > blacknose dace > slimy sculpin. However, behavioral sensitivity to treatment level was greatest in blacknose dace. Recovery to pre-treatment activity rates for most behavior patterns (including feeding) was observed 24 h after cessation of exposure in all three species. Recovery was independent of treatment level, was most rapid in blacknose dace, and was slowest in brook trout. Overall, slimy sculpin was least affected behaviorally by elevated CO2. Although all three species showed stress response and changes in behavior at moderate levels of CO2 (> or = 2%), brook trout and blacknose dace showed evidence of ability to avoid harmful CO2 levels by swimming out of affected waters, whereas the slimy sculpin showed minimal behavioral change...

Evolution of lung breathing from a lungless primitive vertebrate

“…Fish are commonly reported to “cough”, presumably as a result of the distinct CRG cough (Ballintijn, 1985; Ballintijn and Jüch, 1984; Ballintijn and Punt, 1985;; Burleson and Smith, 2001), and there is evidence that “cough” in fish can be modulated by acidity (Bishop and McIntosh, 1981; Hargis, 1976; Lunn et al ., 1976; Nevitt 1991; Rose-Janes and Playle, 2001; Ross et al . 2001; Satchell and Maddalena, 1972).…”

Development of Carbon Dioxide Barriers to Deter Invasive Fishes: Insights and Lessons Learned from Bigheaded Carp

“…Bishai [78] showed that juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) demonstrated a stronger avoidance response to a pH change caused by CO 2 relative to a pH change caused by hydrochloric acid. Jones et al [79] noted that individual arctic char (Salvelinus aplinus) will avoid concentrations of CO 2 that exceed 50 µmol/L, Ross et al [80] showed that brook trout and blacknose dace (Rhinichthys atratulus) would avoid water with ≥2% CO 2 , while Clingerman et al [81] reported that intentional elevations of CO 2 to 60 mg/L in an aquaculture would induce avoidance behavior in groups of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), thereby facilitating harvest and collection in recirculating tanks. Finally, both Bernier and Randall [64], as well as Yoshikawa [82], revealed that rainbow trout exhibited a "violent" struggle upon being exposed to water maintained at 36-350 mmHg CO 2 , while Clingerman et al [81] indicated that rainbow trout in aquaculture tanks demonstrated "chaotic" swimming when CO 2 levels were increased to 35-60 mg/L.…”

“…While the response of fishes to high concentrations of CO 2 when applied as an anesthetic appeared to be consistent [67,83], and the physiological responses of fishes to general hypercarbia had been well-defined [63], relatively less was known about the thresholds or "inflection points" that cause the onset of disturbances (i.e., a dose-response curve), and if those threshold concentrations were consistent across species and life stages. For example, Ross et al [80] exposed book trout, slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus) and blacknose dace to four levels of CO 2 (0%, 1.4%, 2.8% and 5.1%) for either one or 24 h and noted differences in physiological responses both across species and across exposure durations, suggesting species-specific responses to CO 2 exposure. To address this need and define concentrations that induced onset of disturbances, Kates et al [66] exposed bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), silver carp (>450 mm) and bighead carp (>700 mm) to two different concentrations of CO 2 (30 mg/L and 70 mg/L) for three hours and showed that, 30 mg/L CO 2 (approximately 2000 µatm CO 2 ) had minimal physiological or behavioral impacts, but a three hour exposure to 70 mg/L CO 2 (approximately 50,000 µatm CO 2 ) resulted in a drop in ventilation rates, and an increase in irregular behaviors such as erratic swimming, twitching and escape attempts for silver carp and bighead carp [66].…”

Fishes in high-CO2, acidified oceans

“…The survey revealed that the data from these studies are of limited value to predict the fate of fishes in the future acidified oceans for the following reasons: (1) the pCO 2 levels used were much higher (above 50 000 µatm in 92% of the papers: 1 µatm = 0.76 × 10 -3 mmHg = 0.1013 Pa) than projected for the oceans in the next centuries (max. 1900 µatm at around the year 2300, Caldeira & Wickett 2003; see also Caldeira & Wickett 2005 for other projections), with only 2 studies covering the pCO 2 range below 2000 µatm (Jones et al 1985, Ross et al 2001; (2) CO 2 exposure periods were less than 4 d in 79% of the in vivo studies with only 8 experiments longer than 60 d; (3) marine species were used only in 25% of the studies; (4) research has focused largely on acid -base regulation and cardiorespiratory control (58% of the papers), and other aspects were little investigated; (5) effects on early development have been studied in only 2 papers (Kikkawa et al 2003, this paper was counted under 'sequestration, ' Sawada et al 2008);and (6) all are laboratory experiments.…”