Effects of Recreation on Animals Revealed as Widespread through a Global Systematic Review

Abstract

Outdoor recreation is typically assumed to be compatible with biodiversity conservation and is permitted in most protected areas worldwide. However, increasing numbers of studies are discovering negative effects of recreation on animals. We conducted a systematic review of the scientific literature and analyzed 274 articles on the effects of non-consumptive recreation on animals, across all geographic areas, taxonomic groups, and recreation activities. We quantified trends in publication rates and outlets, identified knowledge gaps, and assessed evidence for effects of recreation. Although publication rates are low and knowledge gaps remain, the evidence was clear with over 93% of reviewed articles documenting at least one effect of recreation on animals, the majority of which (59%) were classified as negative effects. Most articles focused on mammals (42% of articles) or birds (37%), locations in North America (37.7%) or Europe (26.6%), and individual-level responses (49%). Meanwhile, studies of amphibians, reptiles, and fish, locations in South America, Asia, and Africa, and responses at the population and community levels are lacking. Although responses are likely to be species-specific in many cases, some taxonomic groups (e.g., raptors, shorebirds, ungulates, and corals) had greater evidence for an effect of recreation. Counter to public perception, non-motorized activities had more evidence for a negative effect of recreation than motorized activities, with effects observed 1.2 times more frequently. Snow-based activities had more evidence for an effect than other types of recreation, with effects observed 1.3 times more frequently. Protecting biodiversity from potentially harmful effects of recreation is a primary concern for conservation planners and land managers who face increases in park visitation rates; accordingly, there is demand for science-based information to help solve these dilemmas.

Wolverines in winter: indirect habitat loss and functional responses to backcountry recreation

“…, Larson et al. ). The most commonly reported wildlife responses to recreation are behavioral and physiological, including elevated stress hormones and avoidance or displacement from areas of disturbance (Harris et al.…”

“…Although useful, many of the previous studies assessing the effects of winter recreation on wildlife have been limited spatially and temporally, and most were focused within a single study area and on a single form of winter recreation (Larson et al. ). As backcountry winter recreation grows in intensity and spatial extent, coupled with the potential concentration of activities due to climate change‐driven reductions in snow area and season (Dawson et al.…”

Winter recreation and Canada lynx: reducing conflict through niche partitioning

“…, Larson et al. ). Winter sports are particularly invasive to sensitive wildlife due to the noise and speed associated with snowmobilers and backcountry skiers (i.e., off‐piste skiers; Braunisch et al.…”

Sharing the same slope: Behavioral responses of a threatened mesocarnivore to motorized and nonmotorized winter recreation

“…While recreational use of an area is generally assumed to be more compatible with species' conservation than consumptive activities such as development or resource extraction, animals' perceived risk from recreation can lead to behavioral tradeoffs such as increased vigilance and decreased feeding, mating, or parental care activities (Frid & Dill, 2002;Larson, Reed, Merenlender, & Crooks, 2016). Snow-based recreation may also have a greater negative affect on wildlife compared to aquatic or summer-terrestrial sports (Larson et al, 2016), with changes in space or temporal use of an area frequently observed. Moose (Alces alces) and mountain caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), for example, were spatially displaced from suitable habitat by the presence of snowmobile recreation (Harris, Nielson, Rinaldi, & Lohuis, 2013;Seip, Johnson, & Watts, 2007), while mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus ;Richard & Côté, 2016) and black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) avoided developed ski areas (Patthey, Wirthner, Signorell, & Arlettaz, 2008).…”

“…Developed ski resorts, which include considerable infrastructure, tree removal, and continuous maintenance (Rixen & Rolando, 2013), also differ from dispersed recreation, which requires little infrastructure and minimally affects existing forest conditions. The number of participants and total days spent on winter recreation is projected to increase over the next several decades (White et al, 2016), and coupled with the potential of climate-induced reduction in persistent and deep snow, research is needed to characterize the effects of winter recreation on endangered or threatened species that are snow-associated (Larson et al, 2016). Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), a threatened species in the continental United States, is of particular concern because of its relative rarity as well as its adaptation to and reliance on deep snow to limit competition from other predators during winter (Buskirk, Ruggiero, & Krebs, 1999).…”