Effects of Regular Heel-Raise Training Aimed at the Soleus Muscle on Dynamic Balance Associated With Arm Movement in Elderly Women

Abstract

The effects of low-intensity muscle training with heel-raises on dynamic balance associated with bilateral arm flexion were investigated in postmenopausal elderly women. Twenty-six elderly women were evenly grouped into training and control groups. Training group subjects performed 100 heel raises per day for 2 months. The training was aimed at hypertrophy of the soleus muscle, which has a relatively high proportion (ca. 90%) of slow-twitch muscle fibers and is one of the main postural muscles. Dynamic balance was measured while arm flexion was performed in response to a visual stimulus (simple-reaction condition) or at the subjects' own pace (own-timing condition). The following parameters were compared before and after the training period: plantar flexion strength, thicknesses of the gastrocnemius and soleus (by ultrasound), reaction time of the anterior deltoid in the simple-reaction condition, activation onset timing of postural muscles with respect to the deltoid, movement angles of ankle and hip joints, and postural fluctuation. In the training group only, the following training-related effects were demonstrated: (a) increase in plantar flexor strength and thickness of the soleus, (b) shortening of the deltoid reaction time, (c) earlier activation of the erector spinae in the simple-reaction condition and the soleus in the own-timing condition, and (d) increase in ankle movement in the own-timing condition and a decrease in postural fluctuation. This heel-raise training in the elderly can increase soleus thickness within the triceps surae and improve postural control modality and stability that are effectively contributed to by the leg muscle. This training consists of a low-intensity exercise that requires neither special machines nor a specific environment and can be performed safely for all old-aged groups.

Do the anatomical and physiological properties of a muscle determine its adaptive response to different loading protocols?

“…Our results are in contrast to those of Fujiwara et al. (2011), who reported a greater increase in MT of the soleus compared to the gastrocnemius (12.7% vs. 6.6%) following performance of one daily set of very low load standing plantarflexion exercise (100 repetitions) in a cohort of older women across a 2‐month study period. Discrepancies between the studies may be attributable to several factors.…”

“…Moreover, Fujiwara et al. (2011) employed a very high repetition range using only bodyweight as resistance whereas the repetition range in our study, although generally considered high by RT standards, equated to ~¼ the number of repetitions performed in the former protocol. Differences in the populations studied (older women vs. younger men) may also have been a factor, as the aging process results in a gradual loss of fast‐twitch fibers whereby whole muscle develops a slower phenotype with an impaired capacity to generate force (Waters, Baumgartner, Garry, & Vellas, 2010).…”

“…For one, subjects in Fujiwara et al. (2011) performed an unsupervised, home‐based training program, and thus may not have exerted sufficient effort during exercise performance to elicit a robust hypertrophic response in the more fast‐twitch dominant gastrocnemii; alternatively, our study employed fully supervised training with subjects pushed to the point of momentary muscle failure on each set. Moreover, Fujiwara et al.…”

Effects of Water-Based Training on Static and Dynamic Balance of Older Women

“…Indeed, training of the ankle muscles using low to moderate intensities have been described as improving not only strength, but also dynamic responses. 37 Therefore, the waterbased program may be viewed as an interesting stimulus for modifying the postural responses by increasing the readiness of the system, i.e., the ability to react promptly to a perturbation. It may be also argued that the dynamic nature of the water-based training program may have influenced the ability to recover balance, but may have no effect on the ability to sustain a quiet static posture over time.…”

Neuromuscular Ultrasonography: Quantifying Muscle and Nerve Measurements

“…Fujiwara and colleagues 18 showed that heel-raising exercises in elderly women significantly increased gastrocnemius (6%) and soleus (12%) thickness, and McNee 21 showed that strength training in children with cerebral palsy increased the volume of the medial and lateral gastrocnemius muscles by about 15%. As such, it is clear that exercise training, in healthy young and old controls and diseased individuals, leads to increased muscle thickness and improves measures of strength and function.…”