Effects of solid-state fermentation using R. oligosporus on the phytochemical composition of wild-simulated ginseng leaf and its biological properties

Enzymatic upcycling of wild-simulated ginseng leaves for enhancing biological activities and compound K

“…The monosaccharides and disaccharides in the extracted WSGL solution were removed by adding sodium alginate yeast beads to the supernatants (Duarte et al 2013 ). The sample was incubated at 37 °C and 150 rpm for 12 h. The yeast beads were removed, and the supernatant was lyophilized at 0 °C and 10 Pa (Eyela FD-550; Rikakikai Co., Tokyo, Japan) for analysis of ginsenoside composition as described previously (Lim et al 2023 ). After lyophilization, a 20 mg sample was dissolved in DMSO as a stock solution.…”

“…Korean ginseng, Panax ginseng C. A. Mey, is used in herbal medicine and dietary supplements because of its medicinal properties (Chang et al 2003 ; Lim et al 2023 ). Ginseng cultivated in the mountains without artificial intervention for over 5 years is termed wild-simulated ginseng (WSG).…”

“…Compound K (CK; 20-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol) is a minor tetracyclic triterpenoid with neuroprotective, anti-aging, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antiallergic activities (Cho et al 2009 ; Han et al 2007 ; Jeong et al 2010 ; Kim et al 2004 ; Park et al 2005 ; Shin et al 2005 ). However, CK is present in trace amounts or is non-detectable in WSG and red ginseng (Lee et al 2020 ; Lim et al 2023 ; Park et al 2021 ) and is typically produced from major ginsenosides by chemical treatment, microbial fermentation, or enzymatic biotransformation (Han et al 1982 ; Kim et al 2018 ; Lee et al 2020 ). Enzymatic biotransformation has high specificity, purity, and simplicity (Kim et al 2021 ; Upadhyaya et al 2016 ).…”

“…The biotransformation pathway for CK from major ginsenosides is theorized to be as follows: Rb1, Rc, Rb2 → Rd → Rg3, F2 → CK (Sharma and Lee 2020 ). However, the Rd and F2 contents of WSG root were 1.28 and 0.11 mg/g dry weight (DW) and 5.16 and 2.45 mg/g extract in red ginseng, compared to 5.45 and 10.85 mg/g DW in WSGL (Lee et al 2020 ; Lim et al 2023 ; Park et al 2021 ), making WSGL a more suitable material for producing CK by enzymatic transformation. Food-grade commercial enzymes, such as cellulase, hemicellulase, pectinase, amylase, β-glucosidase, polygalacturonase, and glucanase, which are used to break glycosidic linkages, have been employed to produce minor ginsenosides, including CK (Song et al 2017 ; Choi et al 2014 ).…”

Biochemical characterization of fermented Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) using Rhizopus oligosporus

“…Our previous study showed that the contents of ginsenosides, the main bioactive compounds of wild-simulated ginseng leaves, were increased by up to 343% by fermentation using R. oligosporus. The antioxidant properties determined by ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of wild-simulated ginseng leaves was enhanced by up to 63% (Lim et al 2023). Another study showed that wild turmeric had increased levels of total phenolic compounds, total avonoid-curcuminoid, curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin by fermentation using R. oligosporus (Lim et al 2022).…”