Effects of Tourists on Behavior and Demography of Olympic Marmots

Abstract

If changes in animal behavior resulting from direct human disturbance negatively affect the persistence of a given species or population, then these behavioral changes must necessarily lead to reduced demographic performance. We tested for the effects of human disturbance on Olympic marmots (Marmota olympus), a large ground-dwelling squirrel that has disappeared from several areas where recreation levels are high. We assessed the degree to which antipredator and foraging behavior and demographic rates (survival and reproduction) differed between sites with high recreation levels (high use) and those with little or no recreation (low use). Compared with the marmots at low-use sites, marmots at high-use sites displayed significantly reduced responses to human approach, which could be construed as successful accommodation of disturbance or as a decrease in predator awareness. The marmots at high-use sites also looked up more often while foraging, which suggests an increased wariness. Marmots at both types of sites had comparable reproductive and survival rates and were in similar body condition. Until now, the supposition that marmots can adjust their behavior to avoid negative demographic consequences when confronted with heavy tourism has been based on potentially ambiguous behavioral data. Our results support this hypothesis in the case of Olympic marmots and demonstrate the importance of considering demographic data when evaluating the impacts of recreation on animal populations.

Impact assessment research: use and misuse of habituation, sensitisation and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to anthropogenic stimuli

“…Harmful effects may therefore go unrecognized, with management strategies calling for either no corrective action, an easing of conservation efforts or even an increase in the activity (e.g. Griffin et al 2007). …”

American Pikas' (Ochotona princeps) Foraging Response to Hikers and Sensitivity to Heat in an Alpine Environment

“…Experience of the individual affected the magnitude of pikas' antipredator responses; however, distance to refuge did not. Age, sex, reproductive status, and condition of the animal can all affect the behavioral response to human disturbance (Lima and Dill, 1990;Griffin et al, 2007), and we were not able to control for or measure most of these variables. All animals in our study were adults, ruling out age effects, but we were unable to determine sex and reproductive status without more intrusive capturing and handling methods that may have affected the individual response.…”

“…Pikas farther from trails did not have the experience to separate human approach from predator stimulus. Numerous studies with marmots, birds, ungulates, and other taxa have documented deflated responses to human disturbance in animals experiencing repeated nonlethal disturbance stimuli (Burger and Gochfeld, 1990;Griffin et al, 2007;Stankowich, 2008;Sirot, 2010). This reduction in predator avoidance behaviors can lead to habituation (Sirot, 2010).…”

“…Human recreation areas and trail networks are found within many mountain parks and introduce novel disturbances to the alpine environment (Leung and Marion, 2000;Frid and Dill, 2002;Griffin et al, 2007). While hikers rarely harm alpine animals directly, nonlethal disturbance can affect animal behavior, foraging, and energy budgets, suggesting that indirect effects of hiking traffic might be important to consider in the conservation of alpine species (Lima, 1998;Frid and Dill, 2002;Sirot, 2010).…”

Effect of ecotourism on plant biodiversity in Chelmir zone of Tandoureh National Park, Khorasan Razavi Province, Iran

“…As a consequence, negative impacts have been quickly observed for wildlife species and habitats due to air and water pollution, vegetation removal for tourist facilities and infrastructures (refuges, camping sites, roads, etc. ), reductions in plant and animal fitness, habitat loss and degradation (Steidl and Anthony 2000;Kelly et al 2002;Manor and Saltz 2003;Amo et al 2006;Rossi et al 2006;Griffin et al 2007).…”